Anti-Semitism, surrogacy, and the invocation of Mohammed in the Play of the Sacrament

Comparative Drama, Spring, 2007 by Michael Mark Chemers

There are four invocations of Mohammed, which in a play of over one thousand lines may not, at first glance, seem particularly significant. In and of itself, it is not a rare practice in early modern drama to have Jews curse in the name of Mohammed; indeed Jews, Romans and other pagans, and Muslim characters in early European literature and drama habitually swear by a vibrant cornucopia of strange gods and demons with utter disregard to plausible chronology or actual religious doctrine. To put such an oath in the mouths of Muslims is to perpetuate the fallacy, popularized by certain medieval romances and by the Chanson de Roland, that Mohammed was the Saracen god. The poet of the Chanson considers Muslims to be "Paynims" (that is, pagans) who idolatrously worship an unholy Trinity composed of Apollyon (Greek Apollo), the demon Termagant, and "Mahound" (or "Mahond," or "Mahomet"). (3)

But the Saracens are not the only characters to invoke Mohammed in early English drama. Throughout the canon Mohammed is mentioned dozens of times in diverse contexts, sometimes as a saint or god of Muslims, and sometimes as an historical figure (as in the Digby Mary Magdalene, wherein the Boy refers to "Leccyo mahowndys, viri fortissimo sarasenorum" [the book of Mohammed, mightiest of the Saracens]). (4) Invoking Mohammed's name specifically as part of a curse or oath is something any non-Christian villainous character (that is, a Roman, Muslim, or pagan), or even corrupt priests and bishops, may be expected to do. In the York Crucifixion, for example, the Roman soldiers who abuse Jesus say: "We! hark, sir knights, for Mahound's blood! / Of Adam's kind is all his thought" (61-62); and "Ah, peace, man, for Mahoun! / Let no man wot that wonder" (129-30) (5) In the Digby Play of Mary Magdalene, the Queen of Marseilles describes him as "pat lord curteys and keynd, / Mahond, pat is so mykyll of myth" (1139-40) and the Prysbytyr swears "Mahovndys blod, precyows knave! / Stryppys on pi ars pou xall have" (1175-76) and "Do yower offering to Sentt Mahownde, / and ye xall have grett pardon, / pat longyss to pis holy place, / And recyve ye xall y benesown, / And stond in Mahowndys grace" (1205-9), with similar invocations throughout the text (1233-37; 1244-45; and 1985-88). In the Towneley Cycle, Pharoah's title character exhorts "heyf vp youre hertis vnto mahowne / he will be nere vs in oure need" (413-44; the lines appear almost identically in the York Exodus, 404-5); Pilate and Roman soldiers and torturers invoke "mahowne" in The Conspiracy six times (11, 12, 116-17, 124-25, 156-57,645-46) and in The Scourging five times (3, 39, 239, 394, 413); they continue to do so in The Crucifixion, The Talents, The Resurrection of the Lord, (6) and also in the York Arrest of Christ and Second Accusation before Pilate; Romans also invoke Mohammed in the Ludus Coventriae Guarding of the Sepulchre. The York Descent of the Holy Spirit has the Doctor invoke "Mahoundes" twice as an oath (76; 158). Even supernatural entities are wont to invoke Mohammed, as do two demons in the Chester Apocalypse (598-99, 646-47, 661-62, 675-76), and the devil Belyall in the Ludus Coventriae Parliament of Hell and the Temptation of Christ (62-63). The York Harrowing of Hell even has Satan himself crying out: "Owt! Ay herrowe! Helpe, Mahounde!" (342). (7)