Evolutionary analyses of ethnic solidarity: an overview

People and Place, June, 2008 by Frank Salter

(17) F. K. Salter (Ed.), Welfare, Ethnicity, and Altruism: New Data and Evolutionary Theory, Frank Cass, London, 2004. See the summary of this and the 2002 symposium in F. K. Salter, 'Ethnic nepotism as heuristic: risky transactions and public altruism', in R. I. M. Dunbar and L. Barrett (Eds), Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2007.

(18) The field of biopolitics has its own journal, Politics and the Life Sciences, which began in 1983.

(19) J. Alcock, The Triumph of Sociobiology, Oxford University Press, New York, 2001

(20) W. D. Hamilton, 'The evolution of altruistic behavior', American Naturalist, vol. 97, 1963, pp. 354-356; W. D. Hamilton, 'The genetic evolution of social behavior, parts 1 and 2', Journal of Theoretical Biology, vol. 7, 1964, pp. 1-51

(21) Hamilton 1963, op. cit., p. 7. According to Hamilton's Rule an act is adaptive when c [Less than]br, where c is the actor's loss of individual fitness, b is the sum of fitness gains to all individuals who benefit from the act, and r is the average relatedness of the beneficiaries to the actor.

(22) R. C. Lewontin, 'The apportionment of human diversity', Evolutionary Biology, vol. 6, 1972, pp. 381-398. See also A. W. F. Edwards, 'Human genetic diversity: Lewontin's fallacy', BioEssays, vol. 25, no. 8, 2003, pp. 798-801.

(23) W. D. Hamilton, 'Selection of selfish and altruistic behavior in some extreme models', in J. F. Eisenberg and W. S. Dillon (Eds), Man and Beast: Comparative Social Behavior, Smithsonian institute Press, Washington, D. C., 1971; see discussion by F. K. Salter, 'Misunderstandings of kin selection and the delay in quantifying ethnic kinship', Mankind Quarterly, vol. 48, no. 3, 2008, pp. 311-344.

(24) Hamilton, 1971, op. cit.; W. D. Hamilton, 'Innate social aptitudes of man: an approach from evolutionary genetics', in R. Fox (Ed.), Biosocial anthropology, Malaby Press, London, 1975

(25) W. D. Hamilton, 'Discriminating nepotism: expectable, common, overlooked', in D. J. C. Fletcher and C. D. Michener (Eds), Kin Recognition in Animals, Wiley, New York, 2001/1987, p. 348

(26) Discussed in Salter, 2008, op. cit., p. 234

(27) P. L. van den Berghe, 'Race and ethnicity: a sociobiological perspective', Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 1, no. 4, 1978, pp. 401-411; P. L. van den Berghe, The Ethnic Phenomenon, Elsevier, New York, 1981

(28) For an examination of van den Berghe's theory see F. K. Salter, 'A defense and an extension of Pierre van den Berghe's theory of ethnic nepotism', in P. James and D. Goetze (Eds), Evolutionary Theory and Ethnic Conflict, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut, 2001.

(29) P. C. Stern, 'Why do people sacrifice for their nations?' in J. L. Comaroff and P. C. Stern (Eds), Perspectives on Nationalism and War, Gordon and Breach, Amsterdam, 1995

(30) R. P. Shaw and Y. Wong, Genetic Seeds of Warfare: Evolution, Nationalism and Patriotism, Unwin Hyman, London, 1989

(31) R. Boyd and P. J. Richerson, Culture and the Evolutionary Process, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1985; P. J. Richerson and R. Boyd, 'The evolution of subjective commitment to groups: a tribal instincts hypothesis', in R. M. Nesse (Ed.), The Evolution and the Capacity for Subjective Commitment, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 2001