Work without wages: the motivation for volunteer firefighters

American Journal of Economics and Sociology, The, July, 1993 by Alexander M. Thompson, III, Barbara A. Bono

I

Introduction

THE FOLLOWING DISCUSSION provides a theoretical and empirical exploration into what motivates volunteer (i.e., unpaid) firefighters to devote considerable time, effort and skill to their communities' welfare, often at significant personal risk. In spite of its substantial social contribution, little research has been done on volunteer firefighting.(1) There is, however, a broader literature on both volunteering and work motivation in general. While this study of volunteer firefighter motivation benefits from this larger literature, insights developed here may also be relevant to the motivation of productive activity, be it volunteer or remunerated.

The data analyzed in this study were obtained by administering a 114-question multiple-choice survey instrument to 354 members of 15 volunteer fire departments in rural Ulster County, New York State. The surveys were completed by individual firefighters at monthly meetings, and were completed by over 99% of the firefighters in attendance. Owing to absenteeism from these meetings, the overall response rate for active firefighters is estimated to be about 65%. These surveys were supplemented by in-depth interviews with several firefighters, as well as by extensive first-hand observation of the full range of activities of two of the sampled fire departments over a three year period.

The second section describes the work done by volunteer firefighters. The third section presents a theoretical model of volunteer motivation, which is then empirically explored in the penultimate section. The concluding section summarizes the results and suggests possibilities for their generalization and for further study.

II

The Work of Volunteer Firefighters

VOLUNTEER FIRE DEPARTMENTS are ubiquitous institutions throughout the non-urban American landscape. They provide essential public goods and are a locus for community organization and identity. The uniqueness of firefighting among volunteer activities arises in large part from its monopoly over its mission and from its vital, indispensable character. Within the United States, there are 1 to 1.5 million volunteer firefighters in 25,000 to 28,000 volunteer fire departments. These account for 80% of the national firefighting corps and 77% of the fire departments.(2) In New York State, of its 134,000 firefighters, 84% are estimated to be volunteers (Storozynski 1990, 28), and 90% of its fire departments are volunteer (New York State Senate 1988, 3).

Although their original mission was fire suppression, volunteer firefighters currently respond to all natures of emergencies. One department's response distribution profile, shown in Table 1, is typical of the sampled departments. Emergency medical care, delivered both in medical emergencies and vehicle accidents, represents a majority of responses, while actual fires constitute less than 10%. This representative department turned out an average of 21 firefighters per emergency, although well over 100 can be quickly mustered by multiple alarms and mutual aid from neighboring departments when warranted. The average duration for an emergency response was 45 minutes, though on rare occasions the duration can be measured in days.

Sampled fire companies responded to between 17 and 886 emergencies in 1990, and count from 35 to 86 active members each. The frequency of participation in emergency responses by sampled firefighters during 1990 is summarized in Table 2. The median number of responses was 50-99, with several firefighters turning out to more than 300 calls for help. In addition to this quantitative dimension, emergency responses usually involve exposure to substantial danger. While obvious in cases of conflagrations, responding firefighters are increasingly risking exposure to a broad spectrum of virulent diseases, including HIV/AIDS and hepatitis, and to a rapidly expanding menu of hazardous materials.

Table I

1990 ALARMS BY TYPE TYPICAL FIRE DISTRICT

                                NUMBER      PERCENT
TYPE OF ALARM                     OF          OF
                                ALARMS      ALARMS

Fires                             41          9%
False and Automatic Alarms       105         23%
Medical Emergencies              189         40%
Vehicle Accidents                 80         17%
Storm Damage                      19          4%
Mutual Aid                        22          5%
Hazardous Materials                9          2%
Miscellaneous(*)                   3          1%

TOTAL ALARMS                     468        100%

* Miscellaneous alarms included a child locked in an
automobile, a child with a finger stuck in a rifle, and a
gravel spill. Public service calls (e.g. "cat in tree") would
also be included here.

Emergency response is the most visible and the single most time consuming firefighter activity, but, as Table 3 reveals, auxiliary activities consume more than two-thirds of the average firefighter's total time in the department. Training time is rapidly expanding with the growing need for expertise in emergency medicine, hazardous materials, and occupational safety and health. Table 3 also makes clear the magnitude of the overall time commitment required of volunteer firefighters. The average firefighter sampled donated 236 hours, or the equivalent of six 40-hour work weeks, annually. Over 70% of the sample dedicated at least 25% of their "free time" to fire department duties. Despite these substantial demands, 69% aver they have never considered resigning.