Elaborating on Gender Differences in Environmentalism - Statistical Data Included

Journal of Social Issues, Fall, 2000 by Lynnette C. Zelezny, Poh-Pheng Chua, Christina Aldrich

Lynnette C. Zelezny [*]

A review of recent research (1988 to 1998) on gender differences in environmental attitudes and behaviors found that, contrary to past inconsistencies, a clearer picture has emerged: Women report stronger environmental attitudes and behaviors than men. Additional evidence of gender differences in environmental attitudes and behaviors was also supported across age (Study 1) and across 14 countries (Study 2). As a single variable, the effect of gender on proenvironmental behavior was consistently stronger than on environmental attitudes. Explanations for gender differences in environmentalism were examined in Study 3. ft was found that compared to males, females had higher levels of socialization to be other oriented and socially responsible. Implications for theory, social action, and policy are discussed.

One of the ways psychologists can promote environmentalism is to understand the relationship between demographic variables and environmental attitudes and behaviors and the implications these human-environment relationships may have on theory, social action, and policy. Numerous studies have examined the relationship between demographic variables (e.g., age, education, ethnicity, socioeconomic status) and environmental attitudes and behaviors. Research on environmentalism and gender has been somewhat limited, however, and "surprisingly little has been done to examine the ... environmental activity of women and factors related to it" (Mohai, 1992, p. 2).

Two recognized reviews of gender difference in environmental attitudes and behaviors conducted more than a decade ago (Hines, Hungerford, & Tomera, 1986-87; Van Liere & Dunlap, 1980) concluded that research on the relationship between these variables is meager and inconsistent. In concurrence, Mohai (1992) stated that "no firm conclusions can be drawn about the effects of gender on concern about general environmental issues, and more analysis and explanation clearly needs to be done in this area" (p. 2).

Review of Literature on Gender Differences and Environmentalism

To elaborate on these past findings, we surveyed a decade of research, from 1988 to 1998, on gender and environmental attitudes and behaviors since Hines et al.'s (1986-87) meta-analytic review. We found that numerous studies (n = 32) had recently been added to the literature. We focused primarily on published studies that had measured environmental attitudes and/or behaviors. Most studies that examined gender and environmental attitudes typically measured environmental attitudes using a single item (e.g., Blocker & Eckberg, 1989, 1997; Mohai, 1992); however, a few (n = 6) included the New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) Scale (Dunlap & Van Liere, 1978; Dunlap, Van Liere, Mertig, & Jones, 2000). Our review focused on the six studies that used the NEP to measure environmental attitudes (i.e., Arcury, 1990; Arcury & Christianson, 1990, 1993; Blaikie, 1992; Maineri, Barnett, Valdero, Unipan, & Oskamp, 1997; Widegren, 1998). Descriptive analyses showed that four of the six studies found that females expressed signi ficantly greater (NEP) environmental concern than males (Arcury, 1990; Arcury & Christianson, 1990; Blaikie, 1992; Maineri, Barnett, Valdero, Unipan, & Oskamp, 1997), whereas two of the of six studies found no significant difference between males and females on (NEP) environmental concern (Arcury & Christianson, 1993; Widegren, 1988); no study found that males had significantly greater NEP environmental concern than women. Using meta-analytic techniques across the six studies mentioned above, the calculated effect of gender on NEP environmental attitudes was r = .07. Thus, it was concluded that the majority of studies from 1988 to 1998 found that women reported significantly more general environmental concern than men, although the effect of gender on NEP environmental attitudes was small.

In terms of gender and environmental behavior we identified 13 studies published since Hines et al.'s 1987 review (i.e., Arcury & Christianson, 1993; Arp & Howell, 1995; Baldassare & Katz, 1992; Blocker & Eckberg, 1997; Maineri, Barnett, Valdero, Unipan, & Oskamp, 1997; Mohai, 1992; Roberts, 1993; Schahn & Holzer, 1990; Steel, 1996; Stern, Dietz, & Kalof, 1993; Stern, Dietz, Kalof, &

Guagnano, 1995; Widegren, 1998; Wolkomir, Futreal, Woodrum, & Hoban, 1997). Of these 13 studies, 9 found that women reported significantly more participation in proenvironmental behaviors than men (Baldassare & Katz, 1992; Maineri, Barnett, Valdero, Unipan, & Oskamp, 1997; Roberts, 1993; Schahn & Hoizer, 1990; Steel, 1996; Stern, Dietz, & Kalof, 1995; Stern, Dietz, Kalof, & Guagnano, 1995; Widegren, 1998; Wolkomir, Futreal, Woodrum, & Hoban, 1997); 3 of the 13 studies found no significant difference between males and females on proenvironmental behavior (Arcury & Christianson, 1993; Arp & Howell, 1995; Blocker & Eckberg, 1997); and 1 of the 13 studies found that males reported significantly greater participation in proenvironmental behavior (Mohai, 1992). Thus, the majority of studies in the last decade found that, compared to men, women reported greater participation in proenvironmental behavior/activism. Meta-analytic techniques were also utilized here to clarify the relationship between gender and proenvir onmental behaviors. Across these studies it was found that the effect of gender on proenvironmental behavior was r = .10.