Raphael's authorship in the 'Expulsion of Heliodorus.' - interpretation of court painter Raphael's mural

17. On spatial perspective as equivalent to temporal "distance," see E. Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art, New York, 1972, 108, 112-13. See also N. Struever, History in the Renaissance: Rhetoric and Historical Consciousness in Florentine Humanism, Princeton, 1970, 66-67, and D. Lowenthai, The Past Is a Foreign Country, Cambridge, 1985, 77-80.

18. See Richter (as in n. 16), 160ff.

19. On the identification of aria with maniera during the 14th through 16th centuries, see Summers, 56-69; and idem, The Judgment of Sense: Renaissance Naturalism and the Rise of Aesthetics, Cambridge, 1987, 117-24.

20. See the famous letter on the idea in V. Golzio, Raffaello nei documenti nelle testimonianze dei contemporanei e nella letturatura del suo secolo, Westmead, 1971, 30-31, also now available in Camesasca, 166. Shearman, 1994, has recently reattributed the letter to Castiglione and redated it to ca. 1522 (see my discussion below). For a reading of this passage that is in general accord with the one I offer - that Raphael made drawings of a particular subject matter in various modes or "styles" - see S. Settis, "Artisti e committenti fra quatro e cinquecento," in Storia d'Italia, IV, Turin, 1981, 729ff. Cf. J. Pope Hennessy, Raphael, New York, 1970, 34.

21. On the postmedieval transformation from "style" as normative and rule-governed to style in its diverse art historical and art critical meanings, see W. Sauerlander, "From Stilus to Style: Reflections on the Fate of a Notion," Art History, VI, no. 3, Sept. 1983, 253-70. And on personal style in the early 16th century, see M. Kemp," 'Equal Excellences': Lomazzo and the Explanation of Individual Style in the Visual Arts," Renaissance Studies, I, Mar. 1987, 1-26; M. B. Hall, "From Modeling Techniques to Color Modes," in Color and Technique in Renaissance Painting: Italy and the North, ed. M. B. Hall, New York, 1987, 12-13; and idem, 92ff.

22. I draw here on Nelson Goodman's analytical discussion of style. See his Ways of Worldmaking, Indianapolis, 1978, 23-40.

23. Cf. the remarks of Marcia B. Hall (96), who claims that in the Stanza d'Eliodoro the "shifting from one color style to another and then back again was unprecedented; it must be seen as pioneering a new attitude, which we recognize now as modal thinking." Cf. also the remarks of Leo Steinberg, who argues that the "more realistic the art of the Old Masters became, the more they raised internal safeguards against illusion, ensuring at every point that attention would remain focused upon the art. . . . They did it by abrupt internal changes of scale; or by shifting reality levels - as when Raphael's Expulsion of Heliodorus inserted a group of contemporaries in modern dress as observers of the Biblical scene" (Other Criteria: Confrontations with Twentieth-Century Art, London, 1972, 72).

24. The allegorical statue-column at the far left of the simulated dado below the Heliodorus is directly aligned with the papal group [ILLUSTRATION FOR FIGURE 2 OMITTED]. Like the outward-looking litter bearer above, it seems to confront the audience in the room and even points rightward with its right hand.