Disability and rehabilitation in Zimbabwe: lessons and implications for rehabilitation practice in the U.S - Disability and Rehabilitation in Zimbabwe

Journal of Rehabilitation, Oct-Dec, 2002 by Elias Mpofu, Debra A. Harley

In the Zimbabwean context, role marginalization is salient to defining older people and females with disabilities than younger people and males with disabilities. For example, older people with disabilities are held to higher social role performance expectations than the younger people with disabilities. They are also likely to be perceived as failing in those roles. Indigenous Zimbabwean cultures have higher role performance expectations for males than for females (Mpofu, 1983), and this bias could add to the perception that ascription of disability status is more appropriate to females with disabilities than their male counterparts.

Disabilities are presumed to be of spiritual origin. The disability causing spirit is often regarded as a malevolent spirit (the winds) (or mamhepo: Shona language), an avenging spirit (ngozi: Shona/Ndebele), or a benevolent spirit (mudzimu: Shona language; Indlozi: Ndebele). A malevolent spirit is one that is cast on a person by his or her enemies and may cause a disability at anytime in a person's life. For example, it is believed that a pregnant woman who has the winds cast upon her may give birth to a child with a disability. Also, a child may acquire a disability after birth if a witch cast some winds on it. A malevolent spirit may be regarded as behind any disability causing injuries that are sustained at work. Malevolent spirits could be in the form of "thokoloshis" (Ndebele) or "zvikwambo" (Shona) (i.e., goblins) who impregnate women in their sleep, leading to the birth of a child with a disability.

Traditionalist Zimbabweans believe in an avenging spirit. An avenging spirit is that of a person whose death is known or suspected to have been caused by another person. It may also be that of a person who was owed some property by someone at the time of death and the debtor failed to acknowledge or pay the debt to the surviving family members. The spirit may seek to exact compensation for wrongful death or non-payment of debt to surviving members of his or her family. A majority of indigenous Zimbabweans believe that the avenging spirit can express its displeasure by causing a disability in a member of the offending family. The belief is widespread that people with mental illness are possessed by an evil spirit (either malevolent or avenging).

Benevolent spirits are those of departed relatives (e.g., parents, grandparents). The spirit is often regarded as a positive influence in the family in that it is considered to look after all surviving members in its lineage. It is also believed to be the immediate link in long chain of ancestoral intercessors with God. People are supposed to keep themselves in a favourable light with the benevolent spirits by maintaining good family relations, looking after any property they may have left behind, and observing prescribed rituals (e.g., throwing an annual beer party for the family in rememberance of the departed ancestors). Breaking any of the basics of good conduct as just described could lead to punishment by a benevolent spirit or spirits. For instance, traditionalist Zimbabweans believes that indulging in adultery or incest could result a benevolent spirit causing a disability in the offspring of that liaison. A benevolent spirit could also allow visitation and harm on an individual by a malevolent spirit by withdrawing its protective functions. Thus, an individual may experience a disability causing injury or disease because he or she offended a benevolent spirit and was chastised for his or her waywardness.