Predictors of success in writing in English as a foreign language: reading, revision behavior, apprehension, and writing

College Student Journal, Dec, 2002 by Sy-Ying Lee, Stephen Krashen

Correlations between writing apprehension and aspects of the composing process were low, but in the direction predicted by previous research. Those who focused more on organization and meaning had lower writing apprehension and those who focused more on grammar and word choice had higher writing apprehension. These results are consistent with case histories showing that those with more writing apprehension focus more on form and less on organization while writing and revising. Selfe's subject, Bev, for example (Selfe, 1985) had a high score on the Writing Apprehension Scale and had a great concern for correctness throughout her writing, which interfered with the generation of ideas: "... at the sentence and word level she began attending to mechanical correctness rather than to organizational and logical soundness" (p. 87). Bev avoided organizational concerns while revising, focusing only on reworking phrases and single sentences. (1)

Thus, as predicted by Lee and Krashen (1997), both amount of reading and aspects of the composing process were related to writing apprehension, but correlations were low. This suggests that either our measures were not sensitive enough and/or that other factors contribute to writing apprehension. Negative correlations were found between a focus on form during revision (grammar, word choice) and a focus on meaning (content, organization), confirming suggestions that a focus on form during composing can inhibit the discovery of meaning (Perl, 1979, Sommers, 1980).

Relationships between predictors and grades

Reported free reading was a strong predictor of grades, a result consistent with research showing that free reading is an excellent predictor of writing competence, as well as other aspects of literacy.

A focus on form (grammar, word choice) was negatively associated with grades. This result is consistent with descriptive studies showing that poor writers are overconcerned with aspects of form and word choice, and that this affects their ability to focus on meaning. For them, revision is simply the process of making a neater version of the first draft. For experienced writers revision is an important part of the process of discovering meaning (Perl, 1979; Sommers, 1980). Experienced writers focus on content and organization during revision, and delay editing until all ideas are clearly expressed.

Previous research also showed only moderate and inconsistent correlations between, writing apprehension and grades in writing classes. We found a very clear relationship, much stronger than in previous studies, and this relationship held even when we controlled for a number of other factors. Our results are also surprising in view of research showing that those in advanced writing classes report less writing apprehension (Daly and Miller, 1975b). This should have meant an attenuated correlation, but our results were strong nevertheless (r = -.51). All previous studies relating grades and writing apprehension were done with native speakers of English. Perhaps the relationship between apprehension and grades is stronger in a second language. Recall also that Fowler and Kroll (1980) found no relationship between writing apprehension and grades when measures of academic English competence were included in the analysis; it will be of interest to determine if the apprehension-grades relationship holds for students of English as a foreign language when previous knowledge of English is controlled.