Prior achievement, aptitude, and use of learning strategies as predictors of college student achievement

College Student Journal, Dec, 2002 by Linda S. Garavalia, Margaret E. Gredler

The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which college students' learning strategies, prior achievement, and aptitude predicted course achievement. Students' final course grades were regressed on the linear combination of reported use of four self-regulated learning strategies, reliance on external sources for learning guidance, cumulative grade-point-average, and aptitude. Analyses indicated that each of the predictor variables was significantly related to course achievement and the set of variables accounted for 45% of the variance in course achievement. Because variables that are related to achievement typically are also correlated with each other, identifying the unique contributions of predictor variables is important. In this study, three variables, prior grades, Factor One of the scale (General Organization and Planning strategies), and SAT score significantly contributed to the explanation of achievement beyond that accounted for by other variables, 13.66, 2.44, and 1.93%, respectively. Of interest is that the unique contribution of General Organization and Planning was greater than that of SAT score. More importantly, organization and planning are teachable processes and instruction in this self-regulatory skill may significantly enhance student achievement.

**********

Social-cognitive theory has identified self-regulation of one's learning as a key component of student achievement (Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). Briefly, self-regulation is the active management by students of their motivations, cognitions, and behaviors to achieve their goals (Hofer, Yu, & Pintrich, 1998; Zimmerman, 1989). Self-regulated learning requires that students internalize learning and task-management strategies and mobilize and maintain them when necessary (Corno, 1989, p. 112). That is, self-regulated learners "seek to accomplish academic goals strategically and manage to overcome obstacles using a battery of resources" (Randi & Corno, 2000, p. 251).

Various studies have documented the relationship between college students' self-regulatory capabilities and achievement (see, for example, Pajares, 1996; Isaacson & Fujita, 2001; Schwartz & Gredler, 1997; Zimmerman & Bandura, 1994). Some studies, however, indicate that not all students actively guide and manage their learning (Ley & Young, 1998; Vermunt, 1992, 1995; Weinstein, 2000). Although some students with serious deficiencies in self-regulatory skills may require special programs (Ley & Young, 1998; Weinstein, 1996), others who are not underprepared may not exercise the active management and control of their learning (Rosenthal, 1990; Vermunt, 1992, 1995). Instead, they are passive learners in that the surface features of texts and lectures and general statements of their instructors guide them.

Self-regulated learning is a deliberate, judgmental, adaptive process in which the learner continually makes decisions in the areas of resource allocation, meaningful practice, strategy selection, and one's efficacy (Butler & Winne, 1995). In contrast, learners in regular college classes who do not engage in the internal control and management of their learning are referred to variously as passive (Rosenthal, 1990), reproduction-directed, or engaging in external regulation (Vermunt, 1992, 1995). Rosenthal (1990) characterizes these learners as doing only what teachers tell them to do.

Classroom practices that contribute to the development of passive learning include requirements to determine "truth" through teacher verification of the right answer and teacher-directed instructive methods ("chalk and talk") (Jackson, 1997). Further, the current metaphor of defining students as educational consumers also encourages a passive sense of entitlement (Hartoonin, 1997). The result can be learners who feel "more comfortable following whatever the teacher decides is best for them" (Rosenthal, 1990, p. 16).

The designation of other-directed or external regulation also describes the behaviors enacted by passive learners (Vermunt, 1992, 1995). Specifically, external regulation refers to the learner's reliance on other sources for sequencing and organizing his or her studies. Examples include studying according to the sequence of material as presented in the textbook or in class, studying all the subject matter in the same manner, and using the teacher's instructions to know exactly what to do. In other words, the student's learning behaviors are initiated by others.

These externally directed or passive learning behaviors also are described as reproduction-directed (Vermunt, 1992, 1995). That is, instead of taking a meaning-directed approach to learning, the student simply implements a surface approach. For example, research on learner control of involvement in computer instruction indicated that students were guided by surface features of the text and consistently exited the screen prematurely (Steinberg, 1988; Yeo, Loss, Zadnick, Harrison, & Treagust, 1998). Although reminders to check all relevant materials enhanced thoroughness for some students, such reminders were simply further direction from an external source.