Lessons from a successful counterinsurgency: the Philippines, 1899-1902

Parameters, Spring, 2005 by Timothy K. Deady

American Strategy

American strategy effectively targeted both the insurgents' strategic and operational centers of gravity. The off-repeated observation of Mao Zedong, arguably the most successful insurgent leader of the 20th century, bears repeating: "The people are the sea in which the insurgent fish swims and draws strength." The American pacification program targeted the sea in which the insurgents swam. It lowered the water level until the sea became hundreds of lakes. As American garrisons drained the local lakes, the insurgent fish became easier to isolate and catch. When the insurgents were unable to sustain a formidable force in the field, confidence in victory--and hence unified opposition--withered.

The elements of power America employed in the Philippines were diplomatic, legal, informational, military, and economic. These instruments were adapted to local conditions, sometimes without the permission of the Office of the Military Governor. While there is some discretion as to the category under which an activity should be discussed (for example, the United States concluded an agreement with the Vatican that exercised both diplomacy and economic power), the aggregate effect shows the United States successfully employed its power to target the Filipino centers of gravity.

After the role of the original Philippine Commission was complete, McKinley appointed a second Philippine Commission under William Howard Taft which arrived in June 1900. The presidential charter to this body was to transition the Philippines from military to civilian rule. As implemented, the policy transferred control of each province from the jurisdiction of the Office of the Military Governor to the commission once the province was pacified. When MacArthur departed command in July 1901, all administrative responsibility was transferred to the commission, with Brigadier General Adna Chaffee taking command of the army. Taft added Filipino members to the commission. He also organized local governments so the elected Filipino officials were under close American supervision. (15)

Taft supported formation of the Federal Party, a group founded by Manila illustrados and former revolutionary officers that advocated recognition of US sovereignty as a step toward representative government. The party channeled Filipinos' desires for independence into a peaceful, democratic undertaking. Party members also negotiated the surrender of a number of insurgent leaders. (16)

The famous baseball manager Casey Stengel once described the secret of managing as being able to "keep the guys who hate you away from the guys who are undecided." Realizing that a unified opposition would be more difficult to quash, the United States exploited the natural divisions within Filipino society. Given its geographic and cultural divides, the Philippines was more easily divided than unified. Whereas Otis had cultivated the elite, MacArthur assumed all principales not publicly committed to the United States were guilty of collaboration. (17) They had the most to lose, and once convinced of their personal safety, were the most willing to cooperate with the Americans. It was 80 Filipino scouts from the Macabebe ethnic group--under four American officers--who served as a Trojan horse that was admitted to Aguinaldo's camp. Presenting themselves as insurgents, upon entering the camp they captured the insurgent leader and his local supporters.