Lessons from a successful counterinsurgency: the Philippines, 1899-1902

Parameters, Spring, 2005 by Timothy K. Deady

The United States employed political power to make cooperation lucrative. As Filipinos' participation in government grew, so did the autonomy the United States granted. Army garrison commanders approved local government officials, including mayors and town councils. (18) By checking civilians' passes and providing labor, local politicians earned the right to offer patronage and licenses. (19) As commanders, Otis and MacArthur headed both the army and the Office of the Military Governor. Even commanders of the smallest detachments were dual-hatted, with their civil governance roles gradually assuming primary importance as regions were pacified. The Office of the Military Governor established civil government and laws, built schools and roads, and implemented other civic actions. With time, more Filipinos came to believe in the promise of democratic government, and a tutored transition.

Often considered a subset of diplomatic power, the law enforcement and judicial power employed were significant. While there were some abuses, prisoners generally were treated well by the standards of the day. (20) Three months after the end of the revolt, the US Congress extended most of the protections of the US Constitution to Filipinos. (21)

The United States employed collective punishments that involved families and communities. (22) Municipal officials or principales were held responsible for events that occurred in their towns. Prisoners were held until they--or family or friends--provided information, weapons, or both. Crops, buildings, and other property could be confiscated or destroyed as punishment. General Order 100 lifted some restrictions on courts, resulting in more prisoners being executed. Rebel leaders were deported to Guam. (23) Filipino police under American control were an extension of US law enforcement powers. The 246 native Manila police officers were responsible for arresting 7,422, including three revolutionary generals. (24)

In an era that preceded mass media, informing the people of events and progress was key to winning Filipinos over to America's goals. The teaching of Spanish had been restricted during Spain's 300 years of occupation. Only 40 percent of the population could read any language. (25) English instruction served as a unifying force, a lingua franca that compensated for differences in tribal speech and the lack of written languages.

Education was one of the few points of agreement between Americans who opposed and those who supported annexation. It demonstrated goodwill and made a lasting contribution to the Philippines. Major John Parker credited the 18 soldiers he employed as teachers in Laguna as being more valuable in the classroom than if they had been used more traditionally. Parker's wife ran schools for 2,000 students, which he believed tranquilized the country more "than a thousand men." (26) In a forerunner of the Peace Corps, 1,000 Americans came to the Philippines to teach. (27) The United States also founded a university in Manila. The commitment to education supported American goals by indicating steadfastness and the intent to build for the long term. Education was the most popular civic-action mission that did not offer a direct military benefit. (28)