A career readiness typology and typal membership in middle school

Career Development Quarterly, Sept, 2004 by Patrick Akos, Tim Konold, Spencer G. Niles

This study explored a career readiness typology of 629 8th-grade students using the Career Factors Inventory. Data revealed developmentally appropriate elevated needs for information, specifically self-knowledge. In addition, cluster analysis demonstrated the heterogeneity of career development needs of 8th-grade students. Typal membership revealed little variance on sociodemographic factors. Career development implications are presented.

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Since the inception of the school counseling profession, career development has been the fundamental purpose and a primary focus for the services that school counselors offer (Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2002). Today, the American School Counselor Association National Standards for career development focus on helping students acquire developmentally appropriate career awareness, employment readiness, and the knowledge and skills needed to achieve their career goals (Campbell & Dahir, 1997).

Although counselors seek to advance students' career development across all grade levels, more career development activities are typically offered to high school students than to middle school or elementary school students (Cook et al., 1996). Researchers pay less attention to career development in these early years, even though research results suggest that tentative college plans and career preferences begin emerging in elementary school (Trice & King, 1991). Parents report a desire for their children to receive career guidance in middle school more than at any other educational level (Arrington, 2000). In addition, career theorists suggest that factors such as curiosity, fantasy, identification with workers, gender stereotyping, race, class, and social valuation influence career development processes during the elementary and middle school years (Ginzberg, 1952; Gottfredson, 1981; Super, 1990; Trice, Hughes, Odom, & Woods, 1995). These early school experiences contribute to an emerging identity that develops during early adolescence.

Within-group developmental differences are typical for middle school students. Developmentally, middle school students begin cognitive and moral processing in which concepts such as ambiguity, values, ideals, and fairness play a role in shaping their identity development. They engage in developmental tasks related to identity achievement and role confusion (Erickson, 1968; Marcia, 1980). For example, ability becomes an important determinant for membership in certain groups, and career aspirations are tested in novel experiences (e.g., new extracurricular activities, part-time work; Herr, Cramer, & Niles, 2004; Miller, 1988). These identity formation processes in middle school ideally include increased exploration in relation to career development (Marcia, 1980).

In middle school, students are typically not ready to commit to career choices. They are, however, expected to make curriculum choices that may narrow future career opportunities. This initial choice point has considerable implications for students' future educational and career plans. A question can be raised about how developmentally ready (in terms of level of exploration, awareness of implications, and maturity) students are for making these initial career decisions.

Career maturity, defined as one's readiness for career decision making (Super, 1984), has received a great deal of attention in the literature and is one of the most prevalent variables in research on adolescent career development (Powell & Luzzo, 1998). Conceptually, career maturity has been associated with factors such as aptitude scores, interests, school subject preferences, part-time employment experiences, and engagement in the educational planning process (Vondracek & Schulenberg, 1986; Westbrook, Sanford, & Donnelly, 1990). For example, curricular tracks often serve as a proxy for ability levels, so the relationship between career maturity and curriculum could be mediated by ability levels (Khan & Alvi, 1985). In fact, the correlations between career maturity and academic achievement suggest that career maturity measures may relate more to scholastic aptitude, resulting in a cognitive career choice process (e.g., career aspirations based primarily on achievement). Our understanding of processes related to career maturity is limited because few researchers have investigated middle school career development, and even fewer have investigated career development processes related to middle school students from diverse backgrounds (Trusty & Niles, 2004; Westbrook, Sanford, Merwin, & Fleenor, 1988).

Although it is developmentally appropriate to be undecided about career aspirations, middle school students should be engaged in the career exploration process by developing a beginning understanding of how their crystallizing identity relates to future career options (Super, 1984). Marcia (1980) identified this as a moratorium stage in identity development, in which students are not necessarily committed to key roles and values but are actively engaged in the exploration process.