Key moments of Islamic civiliztion

New Internationalist, May, 2002

570 Prophet Muhammad is born in Mecca. At the age of six he becomes an orphan and is taken into the care of his grandfather. When the latter dies, the young Muhammad is entrusted to his uncle.

610 Muhammad receives the first revelation while meditating in the cave of Hira near Mecca. He hears a commanding voice addressing him and becomes the Messenger of God.

622 After persecution in Mecca, Muhammad migrates to Medina. The migration - hijra - marks the beginning of the Islamic era.

623-631 After three battles, Muhammad conquers Mecca and forgives all his enemies. A written constitution is established as the basis of governance.

The foundations of the Muslim civilization are laid in the city state of Medina.

632 Prophet Muhammad dies after giving his 'farewell sermon'. Abu Bakr, a close companion of Muhammad, is unanimously selected as the first caliph of Islam.

633-643 After Abu Bakr's death, the Prophet's companion Umar al-Khattab is elected as the second caliph. Syria, Iraq, Egypt and Palestine come under Muslim rule. Jerusalem is captured, Caliph Umar declares that Christian swill be honoured and protected. He introduces the Islamic calendar consisting of 12 lunar months. 644 Caliph Umar is murdered. An 'Electoral Council' elects Uthman ibn Affan, the Prophet's son-in-law and close companion, as the third caliph.

650-652 Caliph Uthman compiles the Qur'an as it exists today. Islam expands into the Maghrib or North West Africa.

653-656 Islam spreads to Persia and Byzantium. Unrest spreads in Muslim lands. Caliph Othman dies in a revolt. All Abi Talib, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law becomes fourth caliph, but his selection is disputed. Muawiya, Governor of Syria declares himself the 'first king in Islam' in defiance of Caliph Ali.

661-680 The Muslim world begins to fragment. Caliph All is murdered. Disputes arise between those who want political leadership to be elected and those who want political and religious authority to reside within the family of the Prophet. Hussain, the Prophet's grandson and son of Caliph All, is killed at the battle of Karbala which becomes the formative event in the emergence of the Shi'a tradition, splitting the Muslim community into two groups - the Sunnis and the Shi'as.

The Umayyad dynasty is established in Syria.

700-750 Islam extends into India. Muslims enter Spain and reach the borders of France. The advance of Muslims is halted at the Battle of Tours on the Loire river in France in 732. The battle becomes a seminal event in shaping European stereotypes of Muslims.

In Baghdad the Abbasid dynasty is established. The paper industry emerges and Iraqi jurist Al-Shaybani publishes his famous work, The Concise Book of International Law.

751-800 A sophisticated book trade evolves, backed by a thriving publications industry. The great compilers of hadith al-Bukhari, Abu Dawood, al-Tirmidhi, ibn Maja and al-Nasai publish their works and authenticate' the sayings of the Prophet. Ibn Ishaq publishes the first biography of the Prophet Mohammad. Islamic Jurisprudence (fiqh) is codified and six 'Schools of Thought' emerge as the orthodoxy. A massive project to translate works of Greek thought and learning into Arabic begins. The Rationalist school of philosophy (the Mutazila) emerges. The Spanish Umayyad dynasty is established in Cordoba and the Arabian Nights stories make a first appearance. Abu Hanifa al-Dinawari publishes The Book of Plants.

800-850 Al-Kindi becomes the first Muslim philosopher, Jabir ibn Hayan establishes chemistry as an experimental science. Al-Khwarizmi invents Algebra. lbn Qutayba, an 'Inspector of injustices' in Basra, publishes his seminal The Book of Etiquette. Translation of the works of Greece, Babylonia. Syria, Persia, India and Egypt reaches its peak. Muslims conquer Sicily.

851-900 Muslim astronomers measure the circumference of the earth and Iraqi scientist Ibn Hawkal publishes The Book of the Shape of the Earth. Al. Farghani publishes his Elements of Astronomy and al-Battani publishes On the Science of Stars. The Musa Brothers, who are engineers, publish the Book of Ingenious Mechanical Devices. Philosopher al-Farabi publishes his celebrated commentary on Plato, The Perfect State. Afghani scholar and advisor to administrators, Al-Harawi, publishes his pioneering work, The Book of Public Finance.

901-950 Philosopher and physician al-Razi publishes his observations on smallpox and measles and Al-Tabari, publishes his history of the world, Annals of Apostles and Kings. The Postmaster General of Baghdad, Ibn Khurdadhbih, publishes The Book of Routes and Kingdoms, a comprehensive work on the distribution of post throughout the Muslim world. Mystic Al-Hallaj causes controversy by declaring, in a state of ecstasy, 'I am the Truth'. And theologian Al-Ashari establishes the anti-philosophical Asharite movement.

951-1000 Physicist Al-Haytham publishes his monumental study Optics containing the basic formulae of reflection and refraction and announces that experiment and empirical investigation is the foundation of all scientific work. Al-Baruni publishes his Determination of the Co-ordinates of the Cities and travels to South Asia to study