The assault upon kings and tyrants in the Moses tradition

Biblical Theology Bulletin, Nov, 2009 by Robert K. Gnuse

Abstract

The biblical traditions concerning Moses in the book of Exodus and Numbers contain an obvious critique of tyrannical kings and their oppressive deeds, as dramatically metaphored by pharaoh and his actions. Movies and cartoons over the years have captured the power of this dramatic symbolism. A close reading of the text unveils how even more deeply penetrating this critique of power and the wielders of power is within our biblical narratives. At times with deadly seriousness and at times with humor our biblical author assaults the prerogatives of kings and their advisers. This essay is not so much a scholarly exposition as a theological reflection upon the powerful political imagery of our sacred text. Too often in our biblical theology we fail to appreciate the depth of the biblical assault upon tyranny and the corresponding affirmation of human freedom and equality.

Key Words: Moses, Miriam, pharaoh, kingship, book of Exodus, plagues

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When we speak of kings in the Bible many stories might come to the fore, such as David's affair with Bathsheba, Absalom's rebellion against David, Solomon's wisdom, Solomon's decision to cut the baby in half, Solomon's meeting with the Queen of Sheba, Solomon's building the temple, the opposition of Elijah and Elisha to kings, and the ultimate overthrow of two royal houses by Elisha. In the New Testament we remember Herod the Great, who sought to kill Jesus by slaying all the babies in Bethlehem, or Herod Antipas who beheaded John the Baptist and saw Jesus before and after Pilate dealt with him. We have a collection of memories about kings that are a mixture of good and bad actions by these royal and regal figures, which is a fairly accurate ideological portrayal of kings in the Bible. Rhetorical statements about kings, most of them negative, appear in the books of Kings and the oracles of the prophets. Even statements about the future ideal messiah really throw negative light on the actual practices and lives of real kings. The more we read the biblical text, the more we sense that the Bible has more negative than positive things to say about kings. We have come to take this for granted, after years of Sunday school and Bible class, so we fail to appreciate how really radical these texts are.

The Role of Kings

Kings in the ancient world were important to the social, religious, economic, political, and intellectual fabric of society. Myths of legitimation are told about kings in primitive society as well as ancient Near Eastern society that speak of how kingship arose and why kings are necessary to the harmony and healthy functioning of society. The emergence of such rulers in the ancient world was necessary for civilization to develop and advance. Kings organized the life of the community or the territory they ruled in many ways.

They were the chief leader of the military in defending the people against foreign conquest. Often they were generals, especially in Mesopotamia, or they at least worked closely with generals, as in Egypt.

* They were responsible for collecting and then redistributing food, so that everyone was sufficiently fed and the population of the community was sustained. Some rites focused upon the king's role in bringing fertility to the crops of the land, especially the New Year's ceremonies in Mesopotamia.

* In the riverine societies of Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China, they were responsible for development of irrigation systems to bring water from the rivers to the crops so as to maximize the crop.

* Kings proclaimed themselves to be the representatives of the gods to the people, and sometimes they conflicted with the priests over this issue in the equivalent an of early "church-state" conflict, especially in Mesopotamia.

* Kings played a significant role in trade. They often coordinated the trade within their own country, for the royal capital often was the center to which various goods came and were sent forth to other parts of the country. The kings also engaged in international trade, bringing goods from afar that could not otherwise be obtained in the homeland.

* Kings were responsible for law and order in society, and they issued law codes to standardize or update law, claiming to have received them directly from a god. Frequently these royal law codes were not really binding upon the judges in the law courts, but they were advisory, and they were used to train scribes in the scribal schools, thus performing an educative role vis-a-vis the intelligentsia and the leaders. Kings could function also as the final court of appeal.

* Kings were a religious and psychological symbol in the minds of the people for the unity and health of the community.

* Kings could be portrayed as the ultimate symbol of order and wisdom in the land. Pharaoh was the incarnation of Ma'at, the cosmic principle of wisdom, in Egypt, and in Mesopotamia he was the perfect man in terms of courage, wisdom, justice, and power, and the steward of the gods.

* Finally, kings could function as priests, even though they usually did not belong to the priestly guild. The king might offer the most important sacrifices, such as those offered by Mesopotamian kings in the New Year festival of akitu, which insured that the world would not be destroyed. The pharaoh would perform the Sed Festival to restore the power of fertility to the land. Likewise, Solomon presided over the dedication of the Temple (1 Kings 8).