Racial identity from an African Amercian perspective

by Rolanda L. Johnson

Abstract: Mortality and morbidity rates for African Americans remain high. Many of the contributing factors to these deaths may be associated with lifestyle. Research has shown that racial identity influences the lifestyles of African Americans. Racial identity includes the adoption of personal behaviors and identification with a group of people with similar characteristics. Clarifying the notion of racial, identity may lead to a better understanding of how racial identity influences health behaviors. The purpose of this study was to explore racial identity from a qualitative perspective. A focus group of African Americans residing in a metropolitan (n=12) city of the United States was used for data collection. Seventy-five percent of the sample were female (n=16) with a mean age of 43 years (s.d.=7.26) and a range of 36 to 54 years of age. After analyses of the data, three themes emerged. These themes were "Racial Identity When Growing Up," "Becoming Aware of Racial Differences," and "Present Racial Identity." Sub-themes of each were explored in detail.

Key Words: Racial Identity; African Americans

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African American morbidity and mortality rates remain high. Although there has been a slight decline over the past few years, African Americans die at significantly higher rates from diabetes and heart disease. In many cases, these disorders can be minimized with healthier living or implementing a health-promoting lifestyle. Many researchers have noted that health-behaviors of African Americans of all ages are impacted by cultural beliefs which includes racial-identity (Belgrave, Brome, & Hampton, 2000; Burlew, Neely, Johnson & Hucks, 2000; Nghe & Mahalik, 2001). Knowing an individual's racial identity perception may lead to a better understanding of psychological and physical behaviors of African Americans. One of the most cited theories in racial identity research of African Americans is Cross's (1991) theory of Nigrescence. Most of these studies are quantitative. To better capture the nature of racial identity and confirm the relevance of this theory, a qualitative research approach is appropriate. According to Phinney (1996) persons Within an ethnic group should not be assumed to be alike. The degree that individuals identify with their ascribed ethnic group varies. The best way to measure racial identity is via interviews, but interviewing subjects is expensive and time consuming (Phinney, 1996). Although the racial identity of African Americans has been discussed and measured for many decades, no qualitative studies were found in the literature. The purpose of this study was to explore racial identity of African Americans from a qualitative perspective.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Racial identity is defined as the degree to which a person feels connected to or shares commonalties with an ethnic-racial group (Helms, 1990). Contrary to previous thought, racial identity is a multidimensional construct (Cross, 1991; Phinney, 1996; Parham, 1989). Racial identity is noted to be shaped by oppressive and racist experiences in African-American lives (Cross, 1991). Helms (1989) noted both positive and negative experiences might influence racial identity. Parham agrees that negative, social, and environmental factors may influence the development of racial identity; however, even with positive socio-environment and encouragement, people may still develop negative racial identities (White & Parham, 1990).

Several of the racial identity stages as proposed by Cross (1991) have been studied quantitatively. Negative relationships between preencounter racial identity stage and self-esteem have been established (Munford, 1994; Parham & Helms, 1985; Pyant & Yanico, 1991). Gender differences also have been noted with men reporting higher preencounter scores. Negative relationships between the encounter stage and socioeconomic status and self-esteem also have been reported (Munford, 1994). Parham and Helms (1985) reported positive relationships between encounter and self-esteem.

Similar to the other stages immersion/emersion phase have negative relationships to self-esteem and socioeconomic status. Males also reported higher scores (Munford, 1994; Parham & Helms, 1985). According to Cross (1991), in this stage the person is characterized as being in a highly emotionally charged state and is overly consumed with being black. He argues that the person's behavior is erratic, impulsive, and irrational. The person searches for a new identity, and therefore, lower levels of self-esteem would be expected. The lower levels of self-esteem are thought to be attributed to feelings of guilt about previously held feelings toward whites (Cross, 1991). Internalization racial identity stages are negatively associated with social class and being male. Males and persons in lower socioeconomic classes may feel the inability to develop and embrace positive identity changes (Munford, 1994), which may result from males feeling the inability to produce a positive identity change that will have a major impact on their lives. The same logic can be attributed to social class. People having lower socioeconomic levels may find it difficult to embrace a new identity. Persons with higher internalization score have more positive relationships with self-esteem (Munford, 1994; Parham & Helms, 1985).

Parham and Williams (1993) reported that the stages of racial identity were significantly related to the part of the country where a person was born. Those born in the South scored significantly higher on the preencounter scale when compared to those born in the West, North, or East. Geographic location of current residence was not considered. There were no significant relationships between education and income levels and racial identity. Although insignificant, people with higher education levels reported lower immersion subscale scores. People with higher income levels reported higher preencounter scores and lower internalization subscale scores (Parham & Williams, 1993).

Whereas there is support for the concept of racial identity, there is still some debate as to the measurement of each stage. The issue is whether racial identity is composed of separate, distinct stages or is a process. Previous research supports variations within all phases of Cross's Nigrescence Theory of Racial Identity. This has been attributed to racial identity being influenced by other factors, such as region of birth, age, and current social and historical events. Specifically, there is uncertainty as to the measurement of the encounter stage. This uncertainty has been attributed to the nature of the stage and the possibility that, rather than a true stage, it may be a transitional period between the first and second stages (Cross, 1995; Helms, 1990). Clarification of racial identity can be obtained with quantitative interviews.

Cross Theory of Nigrescence

Cross theory of Nigrescence is the theory of becoming black (Cross, 1991). According to Cross, this theory consists of 5 stages. Preencounter, the first stage occurs prior to an African American sensing a need to change his or her identity. One's racial identity at this point is based on factors other than race such as church and family. Encounter, the second stage occurs when the African American experiences an event usually racial in nature that makes him or her begin to rethink his or her current identity. The next stage immersion which consists of two phases, encompasses the individual becoming deeply engrained in any activity or organization associated with being" Black". This may be evidenced by the individual changing their name or attire to that of Afrocentricity, or becoming involved in organizations of African American regardless of their purposes. The decisions to select certain organizations and to engage in certain activities are classified as being irrational and often erratic. Emersion, the next phase occurs when the individual's radical behavior in the previous stage begins to change. The individual begins to realize the irrationality of their behavior and begins to focus on the nature and purpose of their selected activities. The fourth stage internalization is where the individual begins to internalize his or her newly developed activity. The individual is now able to appreciate the identity and cultural views of others while feeling fine with their own. The final stage is commitment where the individual becomes committed to others to help them develop their identity (Cross, 1991).