The role of metacognitive knowledge in learning, teaching, and assessing

Theory Into Practice, Autumn, 2002 by Paul R. Pintrich

AS KRATHWOHL (THIS ISSUE) STATES, the revised Taxonomy contains four general knowledge categories: Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and Metacognitive. While the first three categories were included in the original Taxonomy, the Metacognitive Knowledge category was added. The purpose of this article is to discuss the Metacognitive Knowledge category and its implications for learning, teaching, and assessing in the classroom.

Metacognitive knowledge involves knowledge about cognition in general, as well as awareness of and knowledge about one's own cognition. One of the hallmarks of psychological and educational theory and research on learning since the original Taxonomy was published is the emphasis on helping students become more knowledgeable of and responsible for their own cognition and thinking. This change cuts across all the different theoretical approaches to learning and development--from neo-Piagetian models, to cognitive science and information processing models, to Vygotskian and cultural or situated learning models. Regardless of their theoretical perspective, researchers agree that with development students become more aware of their own thinking as well as more knowledgeable about cognition in general. Furthermore, as they act on this awareness they tend to learn better (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). The labels for this general developmental trend vary from theory to theory, but they include the development of metacognitive knowledge, metacognitive awareness, self-awareness, self-reflection, and self-regulation.

Although there are many definitions and models of metacognition, an important distinction is one between (a) knowledge of cognition and (b) the processes involving the monitoring, control, and regulation of cognition (e.g., Bransford et al, 1999; Brown, Bransford, Ferrara, & Campione, 1983; Flavell, 1979; Paris & Winograd, 1990; Pintrich, Wolters, & Baxter, 2000; Schneider & Pressley, 1997). This basic distinction between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive control or self-regulatory processes parallels the two dimensions in our Taxonomy Table.

Metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge of general strategies that might be used for different tasks, knowledge of the conditions under which these strategies might be used, knowledge of the extent to which the strategies are effective, and knowledge of self (Flavell, 1979; Pintrich et al., 2000; Schneider & Pressley, 1997). For example, learners can know about different strategies for reading a textbook as well as strategies to monitor and check their comprehension as they read. Learners also activate relevant knowledge about their own strengths and weaknesses pertaining to the task as well as their motivation for completing the task. Suppose learners realize they already know a fair amount about the topic of a chapter in a textbook (which they may perceive as a strength), and that they are interested in this topic (which may enhance their motivation). This realization could lead them to change their approach to the task, such as adjusting their reading approach or rate. Finally, learners also can activate the relevant situational or conditional knowledge for solving a problem in a certain context (e.g., in this classroom; on this type of test; in this type of real-life situation, etc.). They may know, for example, that multiple-choice tests require only recognition of the correct answers, not actual recall of the information, as required in essay tests. This type of metacognitive knowledge might influence how they subsequently prepare for an examination.

In contrast, metacognitive control and self-regulatory processes are cognitive processes that learners use to monitor, control, and regulate their cognition and learning. As such, they fit under the six cognitive process categories and specific cognitive processes in the revised Taxonomy. The metacognitive and self-regulatory processes are well represented in tasks such as checking, planning, and generating. Accordingly, on the Knowledge dimension, Metacognitive Knowledge categories refer only to knowledge of cognitive strategies, not the actual use of those strategies.

Three Types of Metacognitive Knowledge

In Flavell's (1979) classic article on metacognition, he suggested that metacognition included knowledge of strategy, task, and person variables. We represented this general framework in our categories by including students' knowledge of general strategies for learning and thinking (Da--Strategic knowledge) and their knowledge of cognitive tasks as well as when and why to use these different strategies (Db--Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge). Finally, we included knowledge about the self (the person variable) in relation to both cognitive and motivational components of performance (Dc--Self-knowledge).

Strategic knowledge

Strategic knowledge is knowledge of general strategies for learning, thinking, and problem solving. These strategies are applicable across all or most academic disciplines or subject matter domains in contrast to more specific strategies from the disciplines or domains. Consequently, these strategies can be used across a large number of different tasks and domains, rather than being most useful for one particular type of task in one specific subject area (e.g., solving a quadratic equation in mathematics, applying Ohm's law in science).