The interweave of fathers' daily work experiences and fathering behaviors

Fathering, Fall, 2004 by Daniel A. McDonald, David M. Almeida

DISCUSSION

The results presented in this article contribute to our understanding of fathering as an intricate weave of threads connecting men's daily work and family lives (Almeida, Wethington, & McDonald, 2001; Bronfenbrenner & Crouter, 1982; Kanter, 1977; Lopata & Pleck, 1983; Moen, 1982; Pitrkowski, 1979). Consistent with previous studies (Almeida, Wethington, & Chandler, 1999; Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, & Wethington, 1989; Repetti, 1989, Williams & Alliger, 1994), these findings suggest a correspondence between experiences at work and experiences in the home. However, because previous studies typically used much smaller sample sizes, were conducted in particular regions of the country, or focused on specialized professions, it was difficult to generalize beyond those particular populations. It could be, for instance, that highly specialized professions, such as the air-traffic controllers studied by Repetti (1989), react to work events differently than do men in other professions. The present study enables us to look at a broader spectrum of fathers from across the United States.

Examining the complex weave of fathers' work and home experiences helps us to better understand how men enact their fathering role. Findings from this study lend support to the contention that work and home settings are interrelated for men: that is, work hours, loss in productivity at work, and having too many demands at work are each differentially associated with certain fathering behaviors at home. Working more hours for these fathers translates to less time spent with their children; however, it does not necessarily mean fewer stressful or emotionally supportive experiences with their children. When we look at fathers' day-to-day experiences, we find that on days fathers report cutting back on their work productivity, they are nearly twice as likely to report being involved in some form of stressful occurrence involving their children, yet there is no indication that they have spent more time with their children within the same 24-hour period. Furthermore, on days that fathers report experiencing overloads at work, they appear to be neither more nor less likely to also report child-related stressors on those days. Therefore, enactment of the fathering role for these men involves more than just the quantity of time spent with their children.

One interpretation of these findings may be contrary to Repetti's findings (1989) in her study of air traffic controllers. Fathers in the present study apparently did not withdraw behaviorally or emotionally from their children on days they reported experiencing work overloads, as might have been predicted based on Repetti's findings. On days fathers reported overloads at work, they were 72% more likely to report providing emotional support to their children within that same period. Furthermore, these fathers were more than twice as likely to report being emotionally supportive of their children during those same diary-days they reported cutting back at work. These findings are somewhat puzzling in light of previous research. For instance, if, as Piotrkski (1979) suggests, overloads tend to deplete one's energy, and, as Larson and Pleck (1997) have suggested, not accomplishing instrumental goals may result in disappointment, frustration, and anger for men, we might expect fathers to withdraw from engagement with their children on those "lousy" days at work. However, one perspective might suggest that just the opposite is occurring with the fathers in this study. There are a couple of plausible explanations. One interpretation is that the responsibilities of parenting encroach upon and intermingle with work responsibilities for fathers, such that the provision of emotional support or the involvement in a stressful event in the home setting are not entirely separate experiences from work overloads and cutbacks. Rather, these experiences may be linked in complex ways, suggesting a synergistic relationship between work roles and home roles, proposed by Barnett (1998). Another plausible explanation is that fathers have an expectation of engaging positively with their families as a counterbalance to the stressors experienced at work.