The effects of involved nonresidential fathers' distress, parenting behaviors, interparental conflict, and the quality of father-child relationships on children's well-being

Fathering, Fall, 2006 by Scott E. Harper, Mark A. Fine

The impact of nonresidential fathers' parenting behaviors on child development has received increased attention in recent years and the findings have been somewhat mixed. In their analysis of 14 studies, Amato and Gilbreth (1999) found that authoritative nonresidential parenting practices were related to few problematic behaviors among youth. Their classification of authoritative parenting consisted of such practices as listening to children's problems, giving advice, helping with homework, and engaging in projects with the children. There is also evidence that displays of warmth and support from nonresidential fathers are associated with lower levels of anxiety, depression, delinquency, and drug use among adolescents (Thomas, Farrell, & Barnes, 1996; Zimmerman, Salem, & Maton, 1995). Other findings, however, show little or no support for the direct effects of paternal warmth and control on the frequency of problem behaviors among young children (Coley, 1998) and adolescents (Simons, Whitbeck, Beaman, & Conger, 1994). In some cases, father monitoring and limit setting have been related to higher levels of externalized and internalized behavioral difficulties among adolescents (Stewart, 2003). Some would argue that the controlling behaviors of the father cause the youth to rebel and engage in problematic behaviors. Younger children, however, would not be as likely to exhibit the same level of rebellious response to paternal control as would adolescents who are commonly attempting to assert a certain level of independence. Based on these findings, we hypothesized that high levels of warmth and limit setting by nonresident fathers will be related to increased levels of child well-being over and above the effects of father distress and inter-parent conflict.

Variations by race/ethnicity. The role identity that nonresident fathers develop is heavily influenced by the cultural norms or values embedded within society as a whole or in a particular subculture. Townsend (2003) reported that definitions of "good fathering" and expectations for a father's involvement with his children differ among cultures. These cultural expectations or norms are significant in determining how a father will act out his role. Some studies support the claim that nonresidential African-American fathers have more contact with their children than do other racial/ethnic groups (King, 1994; Mott, 1990; Seltzer, 1991), while other findings indicate no differences in involvement based on race/ethnicity (Seltzer & Bianchi, 1988). Recent studies of residential fathers may provide insight into possible racial differences in nonresidential fathering behaviors. Findings based on fathers' self-reports indicated that African-American men exhibited less warmth and greater control toward their children than White fathers, even after controlling for income level and neighborhood quality (Hofferth, 2003). Coley (1998) found that greater paternal control predicted fewer problematic behavior problems among young African-American children. This relationship was not found for White children. Perhaps African American children interpret the controlling actions of their fathers as being normal and non-punitive; thus, the meaning they attach to the father behaviors may be quite different than for White children. Father warmth, however, would likely be interpreted in a positive way for both African American and White children. Therefore, we hypothesized that the positive influence of nonresidential father limit setting on child well-being will be greater for African American children than for non-African American children, whereas no difference between African-American and non-African-American children is expected on the extent to which paternal warmth is related to child well-being.