Xenophon: The Anabasis of Cyrus

Military Review, Jan-Feb, 2009 by Prisco R. Hernandez

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XENOPHON: The Anabasis of Cyrus, trans. by Wayne Ambler with an Introduction by Eric Buzzetti, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 2008, 304 pages, $49.95.

Not long ago Xenophon's Anabasis of Cyrus needed no introduction for the student of classics (ancient Greek and Roman civilization) or military history. Today this is not necessarily true, as the traditional pillars of a well-grounded liberal education have fallen by the wayside, victims of academic revisionism against histories written by "dead white males." That said, readers unfamiliar with Xenophon's famous account of the "March of the Ten Thousand" will recognize the power and appreciate the human lessons of his narrative. Books generally do not become "classics" merely because of their age; they do so because of their enduring value to succeeding generations. The Anabasis is no exception. An eyewitness account by the protagonist of the events, it continues to be of seminal importance to students of ancient Greek and Persian history.

The ancient Greek verb anabasis may be literally translated as the "ascent," the march "upland" from the low-lying coastal area near the eastern Mediterranean to the dry plateaus of central Mesopotamia, the journey embarked upon by a Greek mercenary army recruited by Prince Cyrus of Persia who planned to wrest the imperial throne from his elder brother, Artaxerxes. However, this "march upland" is only the prelude to an epic return journey. After a hard-fought battle where Cyrus is defeated and killed by his brother, the Greeks remain in good order but are at a loss as what to do next. After listening to Xenophon's wise words, they elect him their leader. Xenophon accepts the responsibilities of command and, after encountering many difficulties, he is able to lead most of the Greeks back to their homeland.

On their return journey, the Greeks fight the pursuing Persian army and hostile tribes in the mountains of Anatolia and endure extremes of hot and cold weather and difficult terrain. Moreover, Xenophon has to survive attempts to dismember the army by leaders of the Greek cities bordering the Black Sea, Spartan envoys, and the Thracians. Finally, Xenophon and a portion of his men return to their homeland against all odds.

Xenophon's narrative is especially valuable for the insights it offers on ancient tactics and military leadership. Contemporary military officers will recognize that many of these insights are valid even today. Indeed, the importance of clear thinking in difficult situations, leadership by example, unit cohesion, and geographical factors such as high ground and rivers are as significant today as they were in Xenophon's time. Historians will appreciate the discussion of the relative value of competing leadership systems and the subtle negotiations that characterized politics in the ancient world. Even more interesting are the insights Xenophon provides into human nature and a contextual richness that allows for more than one reading or interpretation of his text. Despite a natural bias to highlight and justify his own actions, Xenophon admits the reader as confidante into his inner world of motivations and personal perceptions, thus offering a unique window into the mind of a thoughtful ancient Greek philosopher-Soldier.

Xenophon's world had witnessed a "clash of civilizations" between the Persian Empire and the fiercely independent Greek city-states, the first epic struggle in the "rise of Western Civilization." The triumphant Greeks later turned against each other in the destructive internecine struggles of the Peloponnesian Wars. These struggles led to a world in which Soldiers could make their fortune in the pay of powerful employers, be they Greek or "barbarian"--the term used by Greeks to designate all non-Greek peoples. It was also a world in which the power of reason (as in the teachings of Xenophon's revered teacher, Socrates) was establishing itself independently of any religious or moral system.

Xenophon's Socratic connection is significant, and it permeates his thought. As a young man from a prominent Athenian family, Xenophon became attracted to the circle of youths surrounding Socrates. Indeed, other than Plato's famous dialogues, the only other sources on Socratic discussions were penned by Xenophon. But, unlike his master Socrates, Xenophon was a restless man with a thirst for adventure. When his friend Proxenus invited him to join an expedition to Persia in support of Cyrus, Xenophon consulted with Socrates as to the wisdom of this course of action. The philosopher advised Xenophon to consult the famous oracle at Delphi as to whether he should embark on this journey. But young Xenophon had already decided. He asked the oracle not whether the adventure was advisable, but rather to which gods he should offer sacrifices to ensure a propitious journey. Socrates chastised his pupil for the cynical and dishonest interpretation of his advice but accepted his decision as a fait accompli and counseled him to follow the advice of the oracle.