Mountain Warfare—the need for specialized training

Military Review, Sept-Oct, 2004 by Muhammad Asim Malik

MOUNTAIN WARFARE is specialized combat with unique characteristics. Military leaders and soldiers need training and experience to understand the peculiarities of mountainous environments and how they affect combat. Armies that train for mountain combat perform much better than those that do not.

During World War II, the German Army raised an entire corps of elite mountain troops called "gebirgs jaeger" (mountain troops). Although not all of these troops were used in the mountains, they demonstrated superior abilities in almost all theaters in which they were used. The German Fifth Gebirgs Division marched more than 248 miles, crossed mountain passes above 6,500 feet, and secured well-entrenched defenses on the Mestksas Line. (1) Other gebirgs jaeger captured most of the Caucasus mountain region in the summer of 1942.

The U.S. Army 10th Mountain Division, trained in the mountains of Colorado during World War II, captured Riva Ridge in northern Italy. U.S. Army Field Manual (FM) 3-97.6, Mountain Operations, cites this action as as clearly demonstrating the value of superior skills in mountain warfare. (2) The importance of preparing leaders and soldiers for high-altitude combat cannot be overemphasized.

The Pakistan Army has been in Kashmir for more than 50 years and has a great deal of experience in fighting in mountainous, glaciated terrain. While the U.S. Army has quality training institutions for mountain warfare, it does not have many troops with extensive, current mountain-combat experience. A comparison of the training techniques of U.S. and Pakistan armies provides insight into preparing for mountain combat.

Training Prerequisites for Mountain Warfare

Physical fitness is the first prerequisite of mountain-warfare training. The effects of cold weather and unforgiving terrain require a high level of physical fitness for long-distance climbing and walking, and the physical fitness required for mountainous terrain must be developed at high altitude. But being physically fit does not necessarily mean soldiers will be able to perform adequately at high elevations. U.S. soldiers selected to attend the mountain-warfare school in Kakul, Pakistan, required additional climbing time to attain the desired level of physical fitness. The body must adjust to the thin mountain air, and climbing muscles must be developed. (3)

Mountainous terrain can be an ally or a dangerous adversary. In Kashmir each year, thousands of troops are introduced to the mountainous environment to help them understand and appreciate it. A marked difference exists in the performance of units that have conducted vigorous acclimatization training and those that have not. Weather and terrain-related casualties are a big indicator. During initial training in Colorado during the early 1940s, the U.S. 10th Mountain Division suffered more casualties from weather-related injuries than from actual mountain combat in Italy. (4)

Field Manual 3-97.6 defines high mountains as those above 3,000 feet; however, it does not fully explain the high-altitude environment. Despite the fact the Pakistan Army has been fighting in Kashmir for a long time, operations at higher altitudes (18,000 to 22,000 feet) were not fully understood before the Siachen conflict between India and Pakistan in 1984. (5) During the conflict, frostbite, sun-burn, and other high-altitude sicknesses caused large numbers of casualties. Such incidences are now rare, however, because troops and commanders are trained to take precautionary measures.

In Kashmir, stone or wooden bunkers, which double as living accommodations and fighting bunkers, are found at posts below 13,000 feet, but at high altitudes, stone structures are not practical. Cement will not bind, and the underlying glacier is always moving. Instead, prefabricated, synthetic domes (igloos) are used. (6) The domes are easy to carry and assemble even at 18,000 feet and above. They can be retrieved from even large amounts of snow and set up again quickly.

Soldiers must also be trained to wear proper clothing. Loose-fitting layers and insulated and polypropylene clothing that does not allow perspiration to accumulate close to the body are best. Developing frostbite from touching metal equipment with one's bare hands is possible when temperatures drop to minus 22 degrees Fahrenheit. Pressurized sleeping bags help stabilize soldiers suffering from altitude-related sicknesses. (7)

Basic mountaineering and high-altitude skills are vital for soldiers to develop confidence and survive in mountainous environments and essential in combat. As mountain height increases, so does the required skill level. At altitudes below 13,000 feet, it might be enough for soldiers to understand climbing techniques, navigation, route selection, the use of ropes, and procedures to avoid landslides and snow avalanches, but at high altitudes, soldiers must learn more complex techniques, such as those required for mountain expeditions. (8)

Because it is not always possible to transport material by helicopter, troops are often required to carry awkward loads, including kerosene oilcans, rations, and building materials for bunkers. The Soviets learned this lesson while fighting in difficult terrain in Afghanistan. (9)