Mountain Warfare—the need for specialized training

Military Review, Sept-Oct, 2004 by Muhammad Asim Malik

Communications. Terrain and unpredictable weather conditions affect communications at high altitudes. Satellite communications and the use of command and control (C2) aircraft can offset some terrain limitations and reduce reliance on bulky radio equipment. Crews responsible for installing and maintaining retransmission stations--often situated on the highest peaks to provide adequate range and coverage--must be well trained in mountain-survival techniques. Also, these isolated stations are targets for guerrilla bands, as the Soviets discovered when they tried to protect similar sites in Afghanistan. (22)

Fire support. Mountainous terrain significantly influences artillery fire support. Targets are located on peaks, in ravines, and on reverse slopes; no continuous front exists; and weather conditions are unpredictable. Undulating terrain and intervening crests require a large number of observers located on dominating heights to cover the entire area of operations. Gun positions that are ideal for range and coverage might not be suitable because of intervening features and masking fire. At other times a location might be tactically sound but will be an area prone to avalanches or flash floods. Once guns are deployed, major engineering and logistical efforts might be necessary to shift them to alternate locations in a timely fashion.

Air burst and variable time fuzes are more effective than point-detonating artillery rounds. Howitzers and mortars are more effective because of their ability to engage targets on reverse slopes. The Taliban used mortars to hit U.S. troops successfully during operations in Afghanistan. (23)

Maneuver. Mountainous terrain is ideally suited for the defense. During World War II, some of the heaviest casualties in the Italian Theater occurred during an attempt to overcome German defenses at Mount Casino. In Afghanistan, the Russians attacked the strategic Panjshir Valley repeatedly but were unable to clear it despite their advantage in firepower and mobility. (24) The line of control in Kashmir in 2003 was not much different from the cease-fire line of the India-Pakistan war in 1949. (25) Both Indian and Pakistan forces found that an assault on well-defended positions was extremely costly. Defense requires the control of dominating heights, passes, and lines of communication by strongpoints. An integrated defense is not possible in cut up, mountainous terrain. During training, commanders need to understand the techniques of defense with all-around protection and emplacement of direct fighting weapons. Field Manual 3-97.6 highlights that reserves must be closer to important defense locations because reaction times in mountainous terrains are longer than usual, which could require several small rather than one large centralized reserve. (26)

Mountainous terrain offers opportunities for infiltration, requiring defenders to be aggressive at all times. Aggressive patrolling enhances security and keeps soldiers active and sharp. In Kashmir this helped prevent a bunker mentality. Although sensors provide some protection, mountainous terrain is too compartmentalized for complete electronic surveillance. Combat service support (CSS) elements must provide their own protection and must train in patrolling and perimeter defense while developing a mindset focused on constant vigilance.