"I am a non-denominational Christian and a Marxist socialist:" a Gramscian analysis of the Convention People's Party and Kwame Nkrumah's use of religion

Sociology of Religion, Winter, 2003 by Rupe Simms

INTRODUCTION

Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972) defeated the exploitative forces of Western imperialism to become the founder of present-day Ghana, a former British colony and the first of the European colonies to gain independence. In this study, I examine how Nkrumah and the Convention People's Party, the political organization he founded and led, used Christianity to popularize and validate their anti-colonial ideology between 1948 and 1966 by portraying Nkrumah as Ghana's Messiah and the organization as the Party of God. I treat this ideological history as a case study and use analytic generalization and Gramscian theory to interpret my findings. Finally, I argue that Nkrumah and his Party utilized Christianity in a manner that informs Gramscian theory: they demonstrate how religious culture can be employed as an instrument of counter-hegemony--an application of religion that Gramsci did not discuss. (1)

My study contributes to the literature on Gramscian theory by addressing an omission. First, the vast majority of work on Gramsci concentrates on his political ideas, either ignoring or treating superficially his views on religion (Bocock 1986; Boggs 1984; Fontana 1993; Greele 1995; Williams 1996; Wood 2001).

Second, of the limited number of works emphasizing Gramsci's religious ideas, none specifically treat the ideology of Nkrumah and the C.P.P. (Billings 1990; Cadena 1995; Fulton 1987; Kiros 1985; Skledar 1989; Valenzuela 2001). By contrast, I employ Gramscian theory in examining how Nkrumah and his supporters used Christianity in their fight with Britain for freedom in West Africa. Hence, my research contributes to the literature by addressing an omission relating to Gramscian thought.

While making this statement, I acknowledge at the same time that scholars such as Addo (1999), cited below, have examined Nkrumah's counter-colonial use of religion and that other researchers, especially liberation theologians, have also examined religion as an instrument of counter-hegemony (Bergunder 2002; Hinga 2002). For instance, Maduro (1982:139), a Venezuelan scholar studying the relations between religion and social conflict in Latin America, develops the theory that "under certain conditions a religion can also function as a channel of the mobilization of subordinate classes against domination."

In making a specific contribution on Gramsci, I begin by surveying his theory; I then discuss in turn European Christianity, Ghanaian nationalism, and Nkrumaism. I conclude by examining how Nkrumah and the C.P.P. used Christianity in a way that informs Gramsci as mentioned above.

A SURVEY OF GRAMSCIAN THEORY (2)

Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937), the Italian theorist, exerted a profound influence on the development of Marxian thought during the early twentieth century. Critical of Marx's economic determinism, Gramsci rejected the notion of inevitable historical change, insisting that a revolution could only be successful if it properly recognized the subjective component of the human will (Boggs 1968:x). Accordingly, the masses had to be educated to appreciate the exploitative nature of their subalternation before they could overthrow capitalism and establish a Gramscian "workers' democracy" (Kiros 1985:16, 53). Gramsci developed this theory emphasizing the precepts, creation, and popularization of hegemony and counter-hegemony.

The Precepts of Hegemony and Counter-hegemony

In Gramscian sociology, the term "hegemony" refers to a type of cultural leadership exercised by the ruling class. Hegemony is distinct from coercion, which utilizes executive or legislative powers or police intervention to maintain the ascendance of the dominant elite. According to Gramsci, intellectuals sustain the dominant order by creating and popularizing a worldview that convinces the oppressed that their subordination is appropriate, inevitable, and just. In this manner, the masses are socialized to believe that their political situation cannot be altered and should not be opposed (Boggs 1968:161; Kiros 1985:51).

Gramsci uses the term "spontaneous" to describe the supposed normalcy and intuitive origin of these hegemonic ideas. They are "'spontaneous' in the sense that they are not the result of any systematic educational activity on the part of an already conscious leading group, but have been formed through everyday experience illuminated by 'common sense'" (Hoare and Smith 1971:199). Hence, ruling class intellectuals produce hegemonic ideas that persuade the masses to consent to the existing political order and so to their own oppression.

Gramsci sets forth the notion of counter-hegemony as a revolutionary, psychocultural ideology created by intellectuals from the exploited class in order to overturn the standing capitalist order and replace it with democratic socialism. He argues that these ideologues have to create a counter-hegemonic vision through anti-ruling class institutions and lead the masses in staging a universal revolution through cultural subversion as opposed to violence (Boggs 1968:164).