Redefining the product life cycle: the five-element product wave

Business Horizons, Sept-Oct, 1996 by Chuck Ryan, Walter E. Riggs

Life cycle theory has been used since the 1970s to describe the behavior of a product or service from design to obsolescence.

The typical pattern of a product is represented by a curve divided into four distinct phases: introduction, growth, maturity, and decline. Recent research in the area has focused on its use in decision making in areas ranging from those as broad as overall strategy to those as narrow as equipment replacement.

But does the product life cycle, or PLC, really tell the entire story? Consider the Ford Mustang. Since its 1964 introduction, the automobile has undergone several changes. Performance was increased with the addition of the 428 CobraJet in 1968 and Mach I styling in 1969. Another substantial change took place in 1971 with the introduction of the high-performance Boss 351. Then a true muscle car, the Mustang was detuned in 1974, when oil prices forced a more fuel-efficient redesign, called Mustang II. The fourth generation Mustang, introduced as the 1994 model, has been further refined and is more aerodynamic than its immediate predecessor. Yet it still shares roots with earlier models. A 302 V-8 is still offered, the wheelbase is similar, and if one looks closely enough, one can see its genesis in the 1964 model. The pattern evidenced by the life of the Mustang, then, is several curves of introduction, growth, maturity, and decline.

Another intriguing example is the C-130 Hercules aircraft manufactured by Lockheed. The company recently announced the sale of 25 "J" models to the Royal Air Force, which is the fifth version of the Hercules originally produced in the 1950s. Although the aircraft resembles its older relatives, the new model features a totally different electronics package and more powerful engines. Here again, the Hercules PLC shows a curve with five local maximum points (swells of activity, in effect), rather than the traditional, single maximum point, PLC curve.

The examples above suggest a PLC model represented by waves of product introductions, growth, maturity, and decline. Design engineering, process engineering, product marketing, production, and end-of-life decisions are key elements within the system. Each has its own cycle consisting of varying levels of activity. The waves are triggered by critical decision points during the life of a product, when production, operations, and marketing managers must optimize their collective efforts.

Moreover, the waves of activity in marketing, engineering, and production are being compressed by a proliferation of new product introductions and shorter life cycles. In turn, as the marketplace forces firms to react faster, these functions must gather, share, and analyze information with increasing speed. This requires that the firm abandon over-the-wall forms of organization and, in their place, use cross-functional teams, which feature short lines of communication and an ability to make decisions quickly.

Conventional Life Cycle Theory

As shown in Figure 1, conventional theory suggests that a product or service goes through four distinct stages. The objective is to maximize the product's value and profitability at each stage. In the introductory phase, sales are slow. The strategy is to create widespread awareness. Costs are incurred in building distribution and increasing awareness through heavy promotion. It is hoped that the investments made in new product introduction pay off and the product or service moves to the growth phase.

The firm may either build market share or profitability in the growth phase. Strategies here are to make differential changes that add value to the product and to target new markets. Marketing moves away from promotion through personal selling toward more mass media advertising. Just as predators react to attractive targets, competition begins to build as awareness increases and sales momentum builds. Unit manufacturing costs begin to fall as fixed costs are spread over more production units and workers move down the learning curve. The firm attempts to stay in the growth stage as long as possible.

Sales growth slows at maturity and the firm moves to defend market position. This is where marketing managers must pay the most attention. Promotion costs increase significantly. Cost reduction is crucial as competitors begin to lower prices and introduce improved versions of the product. With the lower prices come lower profits, and competitors begin to drop out. This is typically the longest lasting stage, with some market leaders holding their position over several decades.

The final stage is decline. Here the firm may continue to market the product hoping that competitors will discontinue their products. Other strategies are to maximize profit by eliminating as many product costs as possible as sales slow, or else to eliminate the product altogether.

LIFE CYCLE ELEMENTS

Design engineering, process engineering, product marketing, and production have been recurring elements in each stage of the product life cycle. In addition, end-of-life (EOL) issues must be addressed when the product approaches obsolescence. These elements vary in importance as the product or service moves through its life, thus creating waves of activity. The fact that they change in importance and magnitude requires that they be closely managed. Let's begin our discussion of the individual elements with design engineering.