Parental behavior and adolescent self-esteem in clinical and nonclinical samples

Adolescence, Fall, 1994 by David M. Nielsen, Arlene Metha

Self-esteem and self-acceptance have long been viewed as requisites for healthy personal development. The prominent role played by self-esteem in defining human nature can be found in most theories of personality (e.g., Adler, 1958; Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1951).

Self-Esteem: The Construct

Most definitions of self-esteem share a common theme of self-evaluation, and indeed many researchers define self-esteem as evaluative beliefs about one's self (Gecas, 1971; 1972; Kawash, Kerr, & Clewes, 1985; Openshaw, Thomas, & Rollins, 1981). One of the frequently cited definitions of self-esteem is by Rosenberg (1965) who states: "When we speak of high self-esteem . . . we . . . simply mean that the individual respects himself, considers himself worthy . . . low self-esteem, on the other hand implies self-rejection, self-dissatisfaction, self-contempt".

Self-esteem is frequently measured in a way that presumes unidimensionality (Coopersmith, 1967; Growe, 1980; Graybill, 1978; Kawash et al., 1985; Litovsky & Dusek, 1985; Rosenberg, 1965). Some, however, have suggested that self-esteem may be multidimensional (e.g. Gecas, 1971, 1972; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Openshaw, Thomas, & Rollins, 1981; Savin-Williams & Demo, 1983). For example, in a study of parental behaviors and adolescent self-esteem, Gecas (1971, 1972) identified two factors of self-esteem, "power" and "worth." In similar work, Openshaw, Thomas, & Rollins, (1981, 1984) identified four dimensions of self-esteem: "positive self-esteem," "self-esteem power," "self-derogation," and "self-esteem worth." In the current study, self-esteem is defined as the multidimensional, evaluative dimension of the self-concept. Given multiple dimensions of self-esteem, the question arises: What is the relationship between various parental behaviors and each dimension of self-esteem? Although some have attempted to answer this question (cf. Gecas, 1971, 1972; Openshaw et al., 1984), these studies lack common procedures, thereby leaving important questions of validity and generalizability unanswered.

Parental Behaviors and Self-Esteem

Several parental characteristics have been associated with adolescent self-esteem. Most researchers agree that parental affection, or support, is positively related to adolescent self-esteem (Gecas, 1971, 1972; Growe, 1980; Graybill, 1978; Hoelter & Harper, 1987; Holmbeck & Hill, 1986; Kawash et al., 1985; Litovsky & Dusek, 1985; Peterson, Southworth, & Peters, 1983). Likewise, a parenting style that avoids the use of guilt, anxiety, and love withdrawal for use in controlling behavior appears to have a positive relationship with self-esteem in children and adolescents (Graybill, 1987; Kawash et al., 1985; Litovsky & Dusek, 1985). It is believed that such behaviors instill in children a sense of their inherent value (Openshaw et al., 1984).

A somewhat more ambiguous picture emerges regarding parental discipline and its relationship with self-esteem. In theory, moderate amounts of discipline should promote self-esteem (Baumrind, 1968; Coopersmith, 1967; EIder, 1963), yet empirical support for this hypothesis is limited. Some studies indicate that mild forms of punishment are associated with high self-esteem in children (Growe, 1980; Peterson et al., 1983). Others argue that excessive parental control (discipline) is linked to low self-esteem (Litovsky & Dusek, 1986; Openshaw et al., 1984). Still others have failed to find any relationship between parental control and adolescent self-esteem (i.e., Gecas, 1971, 1972; Graybill, 1978). It appears that whether discipline is related to adolescent self-esteem depends upon how one defines and measures both discipline and self-esteem.

One important limitation in the literature relating parental behaviors and adolescent self-esteem is that investigators typically have studied "normal" adolescents. Unfortunately, it is difficult to generalize the results from previous studies to populations of clinical adolescents seen by most clinicians. This leaves us with the question: Do the above relationships between parental behaviors and self-esteem hold true for clinical populations of adolescents?

Purpose

This study was undertaken to examine the relationship between adolescents' perceptions of parental behavior and multiple dimensions of self-esteem in both clinical and nonclinical samples. More specifically, this study was designed to explore: (a) the antecedent parental behaviors of support (or acceptance), discipline, and autonomy granting and their relationship to (b) the Worth and Power dimensions of adolescent self-esteem in (c) a clinical and nonclinical sample. The following relationships were hypothesized: First, that self-esteem is a multidimensional construct. The dimensions of Self-Esteem Power and Self-Esteem Worth are anticipated. Second, that adolescents in a nonclinical sample will score higher on each dimension of self-esteem than adolescents in a clinical sample. Third, there will be a positive relationship between parental support and dimensions of adolescent self-esteem across samples. Likewise, there will be a positive relationship between parental autonomy granting and dimensions of self-esteem across samples. Fourth, there will be a relationship between parental control (discipline) and dimensions of adolescent self-esteem across samples, but no prediction was made regarding the direction of this relationship.