Power, desire, and pleasure in sexual fantasies

Journal of Sex Research, August, 2004 by Eileen L. Zurbriggen, Megan R. Yost

Most people engage in sexual fantasy at least occasionally (Hsu et al., 1994; Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948; Kinsey, Pomeroy, Martin, & Gebhart, 1953; Sue, 1979) and such fantasies are generally recognized as part of a healthy sexuality (Hariton & Singer, 1974). Although other aspects of sexuality have received more attention from researchers, many studies concerning sexual fantasy have nevertheless been conducted (for a review see Leitenberg & Henning, 1995). However, this work has tended to be descriptive in nature, reporting on the age of onset and incidence or frequency of sexual fantasies, summarizing fantasy content, and presenting information on gender differences (and similarities) in these areas. Many interesting questions about sexual fantasy have not yet been considered.

In the research reported here, we investigated several aspects of sexual fantasy that are important both theoretically and practically. We considered sexual fantasies of power--both dominance and submission. Although the relationship between dominant or aggressive sexual fantasies and aggressive sexual acts is not well understood, the presence of a causal link between the two would have important implications for the prevention of rape and sexual abuse. Thus, a fuller understanding of dominance and submission in both men's and women's fantasies is a worthwhile research goal. We also explored the role of pleasure and desire in sexual fantasies. These two concepts seem fundamental to sexuality, yet have not been adequately examined in the context of sexual fantasy. Finally, we investigated the relationship between sexual fantasies and attitudes relevant to sexual aggression.

DOMINANCE AND SUBMISSION IN SEXUAL FANTASY

There are numerous reasons to suspect that merging power with sexuality might be dangerous. Specific behavioral fusions of dominance and sex include rape, sexual harassment, and sexual abuse--serious offenses that often result in long-lasting physical, emotional, and/or psychological damage to victims (Browne & Finkelhor, 1986; Gutek & Koss, 1993; Resick, 1993). Cognitive connections between power and sex may also be problematic in that they are associated with aggressive behavior (Mussweiler & F6rster, 2000; Zurbriggen, 2000) as well as with harmful attitudes and beliefs (Bargh, Raymond, Pryor, & Strack, 1995; Pryor & Stoller, 1994). A recent meta-analysis also found that adherence to a "hypermasculine" gender role (one that emphasizes dominance and aggressiveness) is associated with sexual aggression perpetration (Mumen, Wright, & Kaluzny, 2002).

In spite of these findings, it is not clear whether fusing dominance with sexual arousal in the context of fantasy would have similar negative effects. On the one hand, clinical evidence suggests that fantasies play a role in the etiology of criminal sexual aggression. Sex offenders frequently fantasize about their crimes, both before and after committing them (Leitenberg & Henning, 1995; MacCulloch, Snowden, Wood, & Mills, 1983; Prentky et al., 1989), and modifying fantasies is often part of the treatment plan for sexual offenders (Johnston, Ward, & Hudson, 1997). On the other hand, fantasies of force are also relatively frequent among community controls as well as among men convicted of only nonsexual crimes (Langevin, Lang, & Curnoe, 1998; Rokach, Nuthrown, & Nexhipi, 1988). For example, Crepault and Couture (1980) reported that 33% of men who had never been convicted of a sexual crime fantasized at least sometimes about raping a woman.

One interpretation of these findings is that aggressive fantasies do not necessarily lead to aggressive behavior because only a subset of men who have aggressive fantasies have committed sexual crimes. Another explanation is that aggressive fantasies are closely linked to aggressive behavior; however, only some men are arrested, charged, and convicted of sexual assault. The few studies that included participants from community or student populations and that obtained self-reported measures of sexually aggressive behavior suggest that there is a connection between aggressive fantasies and aggressive behavior. Greendlinger and Byrne (1987) found that men who reported fantasies of force were more likely to report past use of coercion in sexual relationships; they also indicated a higher likelihood of raping a woman if they knew they wouldn't be caught. Smeaton and Byrne (1987) also found that men with coercive sexual fantasies reported a higher likelihood of raping a woman if they knew they wouldn't be caught. On the other hand, they found no correlation between male participants' coercive fantasies and their reported likelihood of pushing the confederate in the experiment "farther than she says she wants to go sexually." The evidence suggests, then, that fantasies of force might be problematic; however, because of the paucity of research on nonclinical samples, this conclusion remains tentative.

Another problem with the literature on force in fantasies is that it has tended to focus only on men and only on fantasies of dominance. Yet fantasies of submission are common among women. Pelletier and Herold (1988) found that 51% of their female sample reported fantasies of being forced to submit sexually, and Knafo and Jaffe (1984) noted that the fantasy reported most frequently during intercourse for women was "I imagine that I am being overpowered or forced to surrender." This fusion of submission and sex does not, however, appear to carry the same risks as does a fusion of dominance and sex. Women who report fantasies of submission have more positive attitudes about sex (Strassberg & Lockerd, 1998) and are less sexually guilty and more open to a variety of sexual experiences (Pelletier & Herold, 1988; Strassberg & Lockerd, 1998). Moreover, although sexual fantasies of submission may be more common among survivors of childhood sexual abuse (Gold, 1991), sexual victimization as an adult is apparently not predictive of fantasies of submission (Gold, Balzano, & Stamey, 1991). Submissive fantasies in women may therefore be one aspect of a relatively open, positive, guilt-free sexuality. Again, however, because of the small number of studies, this conclusion is tentative. In addition, we know almost nothing about fantasies of dominance in women or fantasies of submission in men. Therefore, one of the main goals of our study was to gain a better understanding of fantasies of both dominance and submission in a community sample that included men and women as participants.