The social scientific study of leadership: quo vadis?

Journal of Management, May-June, 1997 by Robert J. House, Ram N. Aditya

Revival of Trait Theory

In the early 1970s, interest in leadership traits re-emerged. Substantial advancement occurred in theory due to clarification of several theoretical issues. In addition, several new empirically supported traits have been suggested. We discuss the reemergence of the leadership trait paradigm in this section.

Theoretical Clarifications. Beginning in the mid 1970s, the study of individual dispositions as predictors and explananda for individual behavior has become more theoretical. Bem and Allen (1974), Mischel (1973), Schneider (1983), and House, Shane, and Herold (1996) have clarified when and how traits are likely to explain individual behavior. Bem and Allen (1974) argued theoretically and demonstrated empirically that traits are more predictive of behavior for some people than for others. Thus, trait-relevant predictability is a trait in itself. We speculate that this predictability can be explained by self-monitoring tendencies of individuals (cf. Snyder, 1974). High self-monitors respond more to situational cues and are, thus, less likely to express dispositional inclinations in many situations. In contrast, low self-monitors are more likely to enact their dispositions behaviorally regardless of strength of situations or situational cues.

Mischel (1973) made the important observation that the behavioral expression of dispositions is likely to be suppressed by highly constraining "strong" situations, but that dispositions will likely be enacted in "weak" situations. Strong situations are those in which there are strong behavioral norms, strong incentives for specific types of behaviors, and clear expectations concerning what behaviors are rewarded and punished. Thus, in organizations that are highly formalized and governed by well-established role expectations, norms, rules, policies and procedures, there is less opportunity for organizational members to behaviorally express their dispositional tendencies. Strength of situation was not taken into account in the early leadership trait studies. Mischel's argument has since received support in a laboratory experiment (Monson, Hesley & Chernick, 1982), and two field studies (Barrick & Mount, 1993; Lee, Asford & Bobko, 1990).

Schneider (1983) addressed one of the major criticisms of trait theory. Critics of trait theories argue that traits must be stable and predict behavior over substantial periods of time and across widely varying situations (Davis-Blake & Pfeffer, 1988). Schneider (1983) observed, however, that traits are predictive of an individual's characteristic behavior in select situations, rather than across all situations. Thus, an individual who is disposed toward aggressiveness, as indicated by some psychometric measure, is more likely to behave in an aggressive manner only in aggression-arousing situations; for example, situations in which others disagree with or threaten the individual. This tendency to aggress is a characteristic that differentiates between individuals only under aggression-arousing conditions. In other situations, individuals with an aggressive disposition are not likely to behave more aggressively than others.