Cohesiveness and organizational citizenship behavior: a multilevel analysis using work groups and individuals - A Special Issue: Focus on Hierarchical Linear Modeling

Journal of Management, Nov-Dec, 1997 by Roland E. Kidwell, Jr., Kevin W. Mossholder, Nathan Bennett

Despite their substantial importance, the effects of group, organizational, and environmental contexts on employees' attitudes and behaviors have been given insufficient attention in the management literature (Griffin & Hofmann, 1997; House, Rousseau, & Thomas-Hunt, 1995; Mowday & Sutton, 1993). Recently however, researchers have successfully used multilevel modeling techniques to empirically examine how variables at the organizational and work group levels might impact individual-level variables and their interrelationships. The effect of organization-level goal congruence on individual attitudes and individual goal congruence (Vancouver, Millsap & Peters, 1994), group cohesion on individual intention to remain in a group (Griffin & Hofmann, 1997), and the relation between individual satisfaction and organizational performance (Ostroff, 1992) are among some of the topics examined.

The thesis of the present paper is that adopting a multilevel perspective would facilitate a better understanding of the role that contextual factors play regarding organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). OCB has been defined as individual helping behaviors and gestures that are organizationally beneficial, but are not formally required (Organ, 1990). In discussing the related concept of prosocial behavior, Brief and Motowidlo (1986) intimated that behaviors like these could be influenced by contextual factors such as group cohesiveness and reciprocity norms. Organ (1990) reviewed potential organizational-level effects, in the guise of market and clan cultures (cf. Kerr & Slocum, 1987), on employee helping behaviors. However, despite the potential for multilevel effects on OCB, previous research has focused exclusively on either the individual (e.g., Smith, Organ & Near, 1983) or group (e.g., George & Bettenhausen, 1990) levels of analysis. One purpose of this study was to determine if multilevel effects on OCB would be manifested in terms of theoretically relevant individual- and group-level variables. Specifically, we examined the relationship of work group cohesiveness with OCB and its effect on the relations of job satisfaction and organizational commitment with OCB.

A second purpose was to demonstrate the use of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM), a methodology introduced recently into organizational research areas, as a procedure for conducting multilevel analyses. The HLM approach to multilevel analysis has a significant history in education research, and has recently received attention in the management literature (cf. Griffin & Hofmann, 1997; Hofmann, Jacobs, & Baratta, 1993; Vancouver et al., 1994). HLM provides for a more robust examination of models for data having two or more levels (Bryk & Raudenbush, 1989, 1992). It is a particularly appropriate analytical strategy to employ in the present study because the focus is on the potential relationships of both individual- (e.g., satisfaction, commitment) and group- (e.g., cohesiveness) level variables with individuals' OCB.

Theoretical Framework

OCB and Individual-Level Effects

OCB involves discretionary behavior that helps co-workers, supervisors, and the organization. Assisting newcomers to the organization, not abusing the rights of co-workers, not taking extra breaks, attending elective company meetings, and enduring minor impositions that occur when working with others are examples of OCB that help in coping with various organizational uncertainties. A key element to OCB is voluntarily aiding others with job-related problems. Multidimensional delineations have identified OCB facets such as conscientiousness, sportsmanship, civic virtue, courtesy, and altruism (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter, 1990). Other researchers have divided OCB into two types: behavior that is directed mainly at individuals in the organization (OCBI), and behavior that is concerned more with helping the organization as a whole (OCBO) (Williams & Anderson, 1991). Courtesy and altruism are viewed as mainly benefitting coworkers, whereas conscientiousness, sportsmanship and civic virtue are directed at the organization (cf. Van Dyne, Cummings & Parks, 1995; Williams & Anderson, 1991).

Global job satisfaction and affective commitment are among the affective work reactions that have been offered most often as antecedents to affiliative/promotive extra-role behavior (Van Dyne et al., 1995). Studies have found individuals' job satisfaction and organizational commitment to be associated with several OCB facets (Bateman & Organ, 1983; O'Reilly & Chatman, 1986; Organ, 1990; Puffer, 1987; Smith, Organ & Near, 1983). For example, Smith, et al. (1983) found a causal linkage between job satisfaction and the OCB dimension of altruism. Other studies have found evidence of significant correlations between satisfaction and OCB components (e.g., Puffer, 1987). When defined as a psychological identification with the organization and its values, organizational commitment has also displayed links with OCB (O'Reilly & Chatman, 1986; Organ, 1990). More recently, Morrison (1994) found positive relationships between affective commitment and several OCB dimensions, though these were mediated by job breadth.