Effects of music, television, and a combination entertainment system on distraction, exercise adherence, and physical output in adults

Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, Jul 2001 by James J Annesi

Abstract

A 14-week field study tested the effects of various exercise entertainment modalities on distraction, adherence, and physical outputs in male and female adults. While no statistically significant differences were found between groups on the distraction measures, the combined music and personal television (with 62 changeable channels) group had significantly lower dropout than either music alone, television (with four nonchangeable channels) alone, or a control condition, as well as a trend toward higher attendance. Also, the combined entertainment group participants completed significantly longer exercise sessions than either the control or television-only groups, and demonstrated cardiorespiratory improvements significantly greater than all other groups. Limitations, including the need for improved measurement instrumentation for exercise-related cognitive activity, were given. Practical implications of the findings were discussed.

Resume

Une etude sur le terrain d'une duree de 14 semaines a cherche a mesurer l'impact de differents types d'activites sportives et de divertissement sur 1ement de distraction, sur l'adherence a un programme d'exercices et sur les resultats du point de vue physique. Meme si aucune difference statistique n'a pu etre demontree entre les groupes, les participants du groupe qui avaient pour divertissement la musique et un televiseur (muni de 62 canaux variables) interrompaient leur activite moins souvent que ceux des groupes qui ecoutaient uniquement de la musique, qui regardaient uniquement la television (munie de quatre canaux non variables), ou le groupe controle, et il await en outre tendance a avoir une participation importante a ces activites. De plus, le groupe de participants aux deux types d'activites accomplissait de faqon significative des seances d'exercices de plus tongue duree que les participants du groupe controle ou du groupe qui regardait uniquement la television, et on a notes chez ce groupe des ameliorations du point de vue cardiorespiratoire plus marquees que chez les autres groupes. Les limites de l'etude, dont la necessite d'utiliser

des instruments de mesures ameliores des activites cognitives relatives a l'exercice, sont relevees. Les implications pratiques des conclusions de l'etude sont abordees.

There is a scientific consensus that regular exercise positively influences physical wellness (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996), resistance to disease (Watson & Eisinger, 1992), and emotional health (Morgan, 1997; North, McCullah, & Tran, 1990). Knowledge of its effects are well-documented and well-publicized. However, individuals' ability to initiate and maintain even moderate amounts of exercise, over time, has been lacking. This unfortunate reality has been uniformly confirmed within the research (Dishman, 1988a, 1994a), public health (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996), worksite (Bungum, Orsak, & Chng, 1997), and private (International Health, Racquet, and Sportsclub Association, 1999) fitness and preventive medicine communities. One might expect that knowledge of the multitude of positive effects would increase rates of regular exercise but, in fact, education has not been demonstrated to be effective in advancing regular physical activity (Dishman & Buckworth, 1996; Meyer, Nash, McAlister, Maccoby, & Farquar, 1980). Despite the considerable volume of exercisebenefit information delivered through mass media, educational settings, and the public health arenas, it remains that 40 to 65% of individuals initiating new exercise programs will drop them within three to six months (Annesi, 1998; Dishman, 1988b). This rate is similar for supervised and nonsupervised programs, across age and gender (Dishman & Buckworth, 1997).

A number of theories attempting to explain exercise behaviour patterns have been advanced. Social-cognitive models focus upon the impact of individual perceptual differences and self-image on behaviour change (Godin, 1994). Expectancy-value decision theories view exercise behaviour as a function of its expected outcomes and associated costs (Rejeski, 1992). Information processing paradigms centre analyses around how intentions are developed and differentially acted upon (Kendzierski, 1994). Also, the transtheoretical model has been given considerable attention recently (Marcus, Rossi, Selby, Niaura, & Abrams, 1992; Prochaska & Marcus, 1994). It suggests that people pass through a sequential set of five "stages of readiness," each holding differing perceptual properties regarding undertaking or completing exercise, that are relatively consistent across individuals. Relapse to previous, sedentary stages are thought to be common.

Because of their dependence on constructs that are not practically relevant for intervention design (e.g., attitudes, intentions, self-efficacy) (Dishman, 1994b), most theories have lacked implications for adherence promotion treatment (Annesi, 2000a). Interventions attempting to maximize exercise maintenance, therefore, have typically followed from major principles of behaviour modification and cognitive-behaviour modification (see Annesi, 1996; Dishman, 1991; Leith & Taylor, 1992 for reviews). Many have focused on promoting reinforcement (and neutralizing punishers) at the point of the exercise behaviour itself, such as verbal praise (Presbie & Brown, 1977), cognitive restructuring (Atkins, Kaplan, Timms, Reinsch, & Lofback, 1984), and social support (Annesi, 1999; Spink & CarTon, 1994). Generally, good success has been found with their use (Dishman & Buckworth, 1996). Dissociation, or the purposeful distancing of attentional focus from potentially displeasing sensory stimuli (e.g., exercise-induced discomfort), has also received considerable attention concerning factors assumed to be associated with adherence (e.g., reduced perceived exertion; increased positive affect; increased enjoyment) (Masters & Ogles, 1998). Minimal study, however, has been given to the direct measurement of the impact of dissociative strategies on exercise maintenance. Such a specific focus has been cited as a gap in adherence intervention research (Dishman, 1994b; Masters & Ogles, 1998). To avoid confusion with similar terminology within the clinical psychology discipline (e.g., dissociative disorders), researchers (e.g., Masters & Ogles, 1998) have recently suggested replacing the term "dissociation" with "internal/external attentional focus," or "distraction."