Effects of music, television, and a combination entertainment system on distraction, exercise adherence, and physical output in adults

Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, Jul 2001 by James J Annesi

In field studies, Pennebaker and Lightner (1980) had participants walk on a treadmill listening to either their own breathing (internal focus) or street sounds (external focus). The externally focused condition produced significantly lower perceptions of fatigue than the internally focused group. In their second study, the positive effects of "promoting attention to the external environment" (p. 171) were again confirmed. Participants running over a 1,800-m scenic cross-country course produced lower scores for boredom and frustration than those using a 200-m track. Music has also been tested as a means for keeping the focus off internal sensations, as well as enhancing enjoyment an aspect generally considered positive for maintaining exercise (Wankel, 1993). In a study of female participants using exercise bicycles, Boutcher and Trenske (1990) tested music against two control conditions. Results indicated that with easy, moderate, and heavy work loads, music significantly improved positive affect. The elevated emotion was considered important for new exercisers during the initial months of attempting to adapt to the demands of a regular program (Boutcher, 1993). Franklin (1978) surveyed joggers about the presence or absence of music while running. A preference for music while training was indicated by 87% of the sample. Many participants interviewed retrospectively noted a reduction in perceived exertion while running at any pace with music.

Two studies were conducted using "virtual reality" exercise bicycles and stair stepping machines. The virtual reality features included an interactive screen in which a variety of scenes and tasks could be negotiated during activity, movement of the exercise apparatus that paralleled what was happening on the screen, and simulated wind in the participant's face. Porcari, Zedaker, and Maldari (1998) found that single 30-min bouts of exercise on virtual reality apparatus and standard counterparts, completed in random order, yielded heart rates 5 to 10 beats per min higher and caloric expenditures 40 to 70 kcals greater for the virtual reality condition, while perceived exertion held constant. They interpreted these results to mean that the virtual reality features promoted an external attentional focus and enjoyment, hence the favourable effect. But because only one bout of exercise was evaluated for each condition, and external focus was not measured in any way, the novelty of the treatment could not be ruled out as a causal factor. Annesi and Mazas (1997) tested the adherence effect of the same virtual reality bicycle against two standard exercise bicycles, over 14 weeks. Two measures of adherence confirmed the positive effect of the virtual reality equipment against controls. Postexercise affective states, however, did not significantly differ between groups. They pointed to the need to directly measure attentional focus in future studies, rather than just to assume that an external focus is being induced, as had been the trend in earlier research. Finally, in only the second related study to assess adherence, Martin et al. (1984; Study 5) attempted to promote an external attentional focus by instructing participants to attend to pleasantries within the environment and "smell the flowers" while exercising. The internal focus group was told to talk to themselves about completing the day's physical activity goals and to attend to physical sensations, while exercising. The external focus group had significantly better attendance (77%) than the internal focus group (59%). At three-month follow-up, 88% of the participants practicing an external attentional focus reported continuing their three-times-per-week program compared to 38% of those using an internal focus.