Effects of music, television, and a combination entertainment system on distraction, exercise adherence, and physical output in adults

Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, Jul 2001 by James J Annesi

These results are only partially in agreement with the limited research in this area. Based upon the extant literature, it would have been expected that music would have been associated with better adherence and length of exercise sessions, over control, but it was not. However, findings were consistent with the studies that tested virtual reality-enhanced exercise equipment for its ability to promote adherence, and length and intensity of exercise sessions completed. The virtual reality treatment was most like that of the Combined Entertainment group within this investigation in that each relied on a viewing monitor a short distance away from the participant, to divert attention. Within the aforementioned studies, distraction from physical discomfort was assumed to be a causal factor. The present investigation appears to be the first to evaluate the presence on internal/external foci objectively, along with adherence. Based upon findings here, the connection between maintenance of an external focus and adherence, while logical, still requires clear empirical verification.

There are a number of possible explanations for the present pattern of results. The first has to do with the unusually high Self-Motivation Inventory scores of participants in all groups within this study. Because this measure largely accounts for an individual's inherent ability to self-regulate and tolerate exerciseinduced discomfort (Dishman, 1991; Dishman et al., 1980), it is possible that the sample tested did not benefit from the distraction modalities offered as much as those with more "normal" levels of self-motivation may have. The second explanation why group differences in association and distress were not detected may have come from the inability to effectively regulate the cognitive activities of the control group. While control participants were required not to use any entertainment, and even somewhat encouraged to associate ("... stay focused on the exercise experience itself"), no manipulation check was completed regarding their use of self-generated distraction techniques (e.g., imagery, self-talk) during exercise. Developing such a check has been cited as a major problem in the measurement of an internal vs. external attentional focus (Masters & Ogles, 1998). Obviously, just the mention of cognitive activity to a participant will impact its usage (and greatly confound internal validity). A third possibility is that the instrument used, which was adapted from an inventory intended for sport, was not sensitive enough to detect changes in an exercise environment in which various forms of entertainment (again, a departure from what the original instrument was intended for) was the primary focus. This is a possible basis for the lack of significant group differences around distraction. It is apparent that new tests, which assess cognitive activity within an exercise context, are warranted. A final possibility centres around a likeliness that exercise success here was more due to the presence of fun and enjoyment, than the use of distraction. Possibly the combined entertainment features, which allowed a significant element of choice and/or variety, promoted a more pleasurable exercise experience which, in turn, promoted better adherence and longer, more intensive workouts. This possibly has been suggested in the literature (Wankel, 1993), and will need to be directly tested. The constructs of fun, cognitive focus, and distraction likely share some conceptual properties.