Effective second-language reading transition: From learner-specific to generic instructional models

Bilingual Research Journal, Summer 2003 by Avalos, Mary A

Abstract

This study examines two questions involving students in a transitional bilingual education program learning to read in a second language. The first question deals with the impact of second-language (L2) text structure on comprehension processes, while the second deals with the level of oral language proficiency necessary to comprehend L2 texts. Findings demonstrate that comprehension "errors" begin at the word level and expand to the sentence level (or beyond) in order for the reader to make meaning from the texts. Oral language proficiency proved to be an inadequate measure in determining "correct" comprehension of L2 texts. A generic processor or whole group model of instruction is inadequate in meeting L2 readers' needs because the generic processor perspective assumes that L2 learners come to school with similar linguistic backgrounds, experiences, and cultural perspectives. The focus of transition instruction should be on individual learning needs, assessed in a manner that enables the teacher to determine the cultural, linguistic, and cognitive interplay between the text and the reader. Knowing students and their families, along with their instructional needs, will enable teachers to help L2 learners move towards a generic processor model with more success.

Introduction

In attempts to increase achievement and accountability, literacy teaching and learning have been the focus of recent reform efforts (Freeman & Freeman, 1999). Although second-language (L2) literacy learning has been investigated in the past (e.g., Carrell, Devine, & Eskey, 1988; Steffenson, Joag-dev, & Anderson, 1979), there has been a continued call to research the reading processes of L2 learners1 (Au, 1998; August & Hakuta, 1998; Bernhardt, 1991; Chamot & O'Malley, 1996; Fitzgerald, 1995a; Fitzgerald & Noblit, 1999; Gersten, 1996; Jimenez, Garcia, & Pearson, 1996; Kerper-Mora, 1999; Koda, 1996).

Issues specific to L2 literacy learning have appeared from the research in this area (Anderson & Roit, 1998; Fitzgerald & Noblit, 1999; Reese, Garnier, Gallimore, & Goldenberg, 2000). This study examines two of these issues with regard to comprehension. First, how are the comprehension processes of L2 learners transitioning to English reading affected by L2 text structure? In other words, what syntactical text structures might be problematic for students transitioning from Spanish to English reading? Second, what is the role of L2 oral proficiency with regard to L2 text comprehension?

There are not many studies investigating bilingual literacy processes among elementary-age students (Comeau, Cormier, Grandmaison, & Lacroix, 1999; Ramirez, 1994). Moreover, there are few qualitative studies that allow for "in-depth analysis of fewer subjects with a broader number of variables" (Gonzalez, 1999, p. xv) enabling "obstacles"2 from the L2 learners' perspectives to be uncovered. This paper reports the results of a bilingual (English-Spanish) study investigating errors from student-generated written recalls. The researcher's intent was to come to a better understanding of L2 students' text interpretations and to ascertain what role, if any, L2 text structure (syntax) and oral proficiency played in their comprehension of texts.

Literature Review: Second-Language Reading Cognitive Processes

There are several comprehensive reviews of the literature with regard to L2 reading in general (e.g., Bernhardt, 1991; Fitzgerald, 1995b; Geva & Verhoeven, 2000; Kerper-Mora, 1999; Ramirez, 1994). This paper focuses on the comprehension processes that L2 readers experience, as well as the L2 oral proficiency necessary to successfully comprehend L2 texts as a native speaker might comprehend them. It is recognized at the onset that reading is a complex cognitive process involving more than language proficiency to understand texts as native speakers might comprehend them; however, oral language proficiency is commonly used by teachers to make instructional decisions and used as a readiness indicator for program placement or to transition students to L2 reading (Goldenberg, 1996). As Cummins (2003) points out, there is a misconception regarding the three levels of language proficiency. The basic interpersonal conversation skills (BICS) are generally acquired within 2 to 3 years, enabling L2 learners to communicate effectively using cues (i.e., facial expressions, tone of voice, intonation, gestures) during their everyday use of language. This is the level of proficiency most native English speakers have acquired upon entering kindergarten. The second tier pertains to the student's knowledge of how discrete language skills (DLS) (i.e., punctuation, grammar, and conventions of print) function in the L2. As the students progress through the grades, their knowledge of DLS grows and becomes more complex. If the first-language (L1) DLS closely align with those of the L2, these skills will be acquired faster. Finally, the cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) needed to succeed when reading about abstract concepts (especially in the upper grades) generally takes 5 or more years to attain. Many in education base their instructional decisions upon students' first tier of language proficiency (BICS) without considering students' DLS or CALP in the L1 or the L2. At the time of this study's data collection, the district utilized criteria for transition that included L1 reading and listening comprehension, as well as L2 oral proficiency and listening comprehension; however, most of the participants were in a transition reading group based upon teacher judgement and had never had the transition readiness criteria administered to determine instructional placement. In addition, many districts, in states that do not have bilingual programs, base program placements upon the first tier of oral language proficiency.