New Religious Movements and the Problem of Extremism in Modern Russia

Brigham Young University Law Review, 2004 by Kravchouk, Veronika V

I. INTRODUCTION

The liberal transition-era policies of the early 1990s following the dissolution of Communism led to the emergence of new foreign and domestic religious movements previously unknown in Russia. The dynamic proliferation of new religious movements and the demands of social, economic, and cultural transition have confronted the government with new and diverse pressures. These increased pressures on the Russian government have been especially poignant as the government has adopted legislation to address extremist activity and regulation of new religious movements.1

Appropriately categorizing new religious movements for purposes of legislation and law enforcement, however, has proven difficult and controversial because classifying a religious group as a cult or sect rather than as a genuine religion has real consequences.2 According to Eileen Barker, a preeminent expert on new religious movements,

application of one label can, without any further clarification or information, bestow respectability and privileges such as status and tax exemption; the application of the other label can give a society permission to damn an organization and to treat its members as lesser citizens, or even as non-citizens, denied what would otherwise be considered their basic rights.3

In order to understand the government's attempt to categorize new religious movements, it is necessary to understand the factors that distinguish constitutionally protected exercise of religious freedom from truly dangerous extremist activity, as well as the difficulty of correctly applying those factors.4

Traditional factors that are helpful in distinguishing between lawabiding new religious movements and new religious movements that are prone to extremism include: (1) length of existence of the religious group, (2) tendency to preserve territorial and/or group isolation, (3) ad hoc financing, and (4) authoritarian or charismatic leadership. However, Russian lawmakers should be mindful of the various shortcomings of these traditional factors, as these elements may result in over- or underinclusiveness in labeling potential extremist activities and groups. Particular difficulties with the application of these factors, such as (1) unavailability of information and length of existence, and (2) vagueness and ambiguity of criteria for identifying extreme religious movements, make this a process that continually requires refinement.

Part II of this Article reviews Russia's religious history, the postSoviet proliferation of new religious movements, the problems and issues, real or perceived, attendant to the rise of these movements, including extremism, and the government's response to these movements. Part III illustrates the government's dilemma of combating extremism while respecting religious freedom, and points out many of the problems that arise from exclusive reliance on these traditional factors. Ultimately, Russia is confronted with a tension between promoting freedom of religion and protecting society from extremism. As a first step, Russia should establish a committee to analyze this problem countrywide and educate its citizenship concerning religion and religious diversity. While increased religiosity has undoubtedly had positive benefits on the country, the widespread emergence of new religious movements has changed the religious character of Russia in ways that potentially threaten the country's stability unless lawmakers achieve a workable balance in identifying and dealing with extremism.

II. THE CHANGING RELIGIOUS LANDSCAPE IN RUSSIA

Dealing with the appearance of new religious movements in Russia requires a nuanced approach because of Russia's unique religious history. Significant world religious events, such as the Renaissance, Reformation, and Enlightenment, largely passed unnoticed by tsarist and Soviet Russia.5 Consequently, the religious pluralism deeply rooted and commonly embraced in Western culture is, like democracy and capitalism, a relatively new concept for the post-Soviet world. Understanding Russia's unique religious heritage is essential to understanding responses to new religious movements and attempts to deal with extremist activities that have emerged over the past decade.

A. Russia's Religious Heritage

Prior to the adoption of Christianity in 988 AD, religious belief in Russia was characterized by a pantheistic pagan worldview that was expressed in art, custom, and religion.6 Russia officially adopted Christianity in 988 AD, when Prince Vladimir of Kiev sent envoys abroad to survey the religions of surrounding regions and return with a recommended faith to augment the pagan traditions of the people of Russia.7 Pagan Slavs who refused to allow their religious beliefs to be dictated by Greek Orthodoxy initially met orthodoxy with extreme resistance.8 Orthodox Christianity eventually gained acceptance as it merged with traditional Slavic beliefs and grew to be identified with the "spirit of Russia."9 From 988 AD to 1917, the Russian Orthodox Church reigned as the officially endorsed religion of the Russian Empire.10 Although other traditional religions such as Islam, Catholicism, Lutheranism, Judaism, and Buddhism were also present, they "enjoyed a substantially restricted set of rights and privileges."11