Risk and resilience in the urban neighborhood: Predictors of academic performance among low-income elementary school children

Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, Apr 1999 by Shumow, Lee, Vandell, Deborah Lowe, Posner, Jill

Correlations among these neighborhood variables ranged from Pearson r = .47 to .86. Principal components analysis was conducted to reduce these data. A single factor was specified. This factor accounted for 77% and 76% of the variance for third and fifth grades, respectively. The eigenvalue was 3.08 for the third grade data and 3.03 for the fifth grade data, with all loadings greater than .45. Children were assigned a neighborhood score in third grade and in fifth grade. The Pearson correlation between these two neighborhood scores was .87 indicating that, although there was some residential mobility, families remained in similar neighborhoods during the study period.

Measures of Family Demographic Characteristics

Information about family demographic characteristics was obtained from yearly telephone interviews and questionnaires completed by parents or parent substitutes. These characteristics were race, family structure, maternal education, and family income.

Measures of Academic Performance

Measures of children's academic performance were obtained from school records in both third and fifth grade. In third grade, a reading comprehension score on the Wisconsin Third Grade Reading Test, administered by the school district in the spring, was the only standardized indicator of academic achievement available. In fifth grade, children's mathematics and reading scores from the Iowa Test of Basic Skills (administered by the schools during the spring) were averaged and used as the standardized achievement indicator. In addition, children's grades for reading, math, science, social studies, and language arts were recorded for marking periods throughout the school year in both third and fifth grade. Academic grades were standardized to a numerical equivalent and average grade points were calculated.

The mean of all conduct grades (M = 1.88, SD = 0.18; M = 1.86, SD = 0.19 for third and fifth grade respectively) was computed for the same marking period as the academic report grades. Conduct grades of 1 were recorded by the teacher if the child required improvement, otherwise conduct was considered satisfactory and rated 2. Conduct consisted of: (a) follows directions, (b) completes assignments, (c) works independently, (d) works well with others, (e) observes rules, (f) shows selfcontrol, (g) accepts responsibility, (h) respects rights of others, and (i) works/plays safely. Cronbach's alpha was .82 for third grade conduct grades and .95 for fifth grade.

When the children were finishing third and fifth grades, teachers also completed a child behavioral adjustment rating scale named the Teacher Rating Scale (Santrock & Warshak, 1979). This 30-item scale includes items on peer relations, compliance with adults, work habits, and emotional well-being manifested at school. Sample items included: "This child gets along with other children"; "This child is cooperative with authority figures"; "This child is organized"; "This child is happy." Responses are 5-point ratings from 1 (never) to 5 (always), M = 3.52, SD = 0.66 in third grade and M = 3.70, SD = 0.56 in fifth grade. Cronbach's alpha was .94 in third grade and .95 in fifth grade.