Perspectives and experiences of Muslim women who veil on college campuses

Journal of College Student Development, Jan/Feb 2003 by Cole, Darnell, Ahmadi, Shafiqa

Moderate gender distinctions, less discerning than the above veiled woman's experience, were also reported in Mallinckrodt and Leong's (1992) investigation of international students. Mallinckrodt and Leong found that "flexibility of curriculum . . . departmental support services, financial aid, and relations with other students" could positively or negatively affect levels of depression and anxiety of women (p. 76). Though these findings were also reported for men, they were not as significant. Female international students face a "double jeopardy" (p. 77) of being female and international. Assuming similar findings for Muslim women who veil, the college experience may be further differentiated.

Instead of using gender or religion as the focal of analysis, other studies have relied on the psychological dissonance between the person and the environment, often referred to as "psychosocial" factors (Erikson, 1968). In the following studies, three psychosocial factors were identified: adaptation, alienation, and the concerns that international students have as they negotiate American college campuses (Heikinheimo & Shute, 1986; Schram & Lauver, 1988; Surdam & Collins, 1984). For instance, the extent that students adapt toward the attitudes and perceptions of peers in social and academic settings has a significant influence on international students' feeling of alienation and acceptance (Heikinheimo & Shute; Surdam & Collins). In predicting student alienation, however, Schram and Lauver reported background variables such as gender, undergraduate versus graduate student status, extensive social contact with Americans, urban home background, length of time in Unites States, and Europe as a home continent as significant factors. Whereas, Parr, Bradley, and Bingi (1992) concluded that while pursuing postsecondary education, financial obligations, extended family, and cultural differences were the most important concerns for international students. Even with these overwhelming concerns, students "depicted feelings that were more positive than negative" (p. 23) and were able to cope under difficult campus transitions. However, over time, these positive feelings were expected to dissipate, due to shattered expectations and the harsh "realities of school and differences of culture" (p. 24).

Similar to psychosocial distinctions discussed above, Boyer and Sedlacek (1988) used a construction of noncognitive variables to explain and predict international students' educational success. These noncognitive variables include positive self-concept, realistic self-appraisal, ability to deal with racism, preference for long-term goals, availability of a strong support person, successful leadership experience, demonstrated community service, and knowledge acquired in a field (Sedlacek, 1989). Boyer and Sedlacek (1988) claim that these eight noncognitive variables are the most current theoretical construct linking past and present research on international students (Boyer & Sedlacek; Kim & Sedlacek, 1995). Primarily used in predicting the persistence of racial minorities in American colleges and universities (Sedlacek, 1995), noncognitive variables appear equally as useful in predicting international students' academic achievement (GPA). Boyer and Sedlacek, for instance, found that self-confidence, having a reliable support person, and an ability to understand racism were significantly correlated to GPA. Though these findings were significant towards understanding international students' academic achievement, the extent to which these variables are useful in understanding the perceptions and experiences of veiled women on college campuses needs further investigation.