Secondary School Teachers' Perspectives of Teaching Critical Thinking in Social Studies Classes in The Republic of China

Journal of Social Studies Research, Fall 1997 by Chiodo, John J, Tsai, Min-Hsiu

Abstract

This research study was conducted on Taiwan (Republic of China) where secondary school social studies teachers were interviewed regarding their perspectives of teaching critical thinking skills in their classrooms. All interviews were audio taped in Chinese and later translated into English. Data including the translation of the audio, video tapes, the Ministry of Education guidelines, and textbook teacher manuals were analyzed qualitatively.

The results of the study indicated that Taiwanese secondary school social studies teachers were not familiar with the definition and teaching strategies of critical thinking; the Taiwanese Ministry of Education Guidelines did not require teachers to teach critical thinking; and teacher's manuals for the state required textbooks provided only detailed content information with only minor references to teaching critical thinking. The study supported comments make by Taiwanese college students in the United States that they did not acquire critical thinking skills from their public school education in Taiwan.

Introduction

Teaching critical thinking generally has been emphasized in elementary and secondary schools in the United States for over forty years. In contrast, it has not received much attention in the Taiwanese educational system (Republic of China), until the last few years. According to a study in 1995 (Chiodo and Tsai, 1995), more than two thirds of Taiwanese college students surveyed claimed that they were not taught critical thinking in social studies classes during their secondary schooling in Taiwan. The findings of the study suggested the problematic existence of insufficient school instruction in critical-thinking skills in the Taiwanese public schools.

As a means of exploring this issue in more detail, a study was designed to interview Taiwanese secondary school teachers to ascertain the depth to which critical thinking skills were incorporated in social studies instruction. Critical thinking skills have long been part of the goals of social studies education in the U.S. (Essentials, 1990). It, therefore, seemed reasonable that interviewing Taiwanese social studies teachers and observing their classroom instruction would provide some important information as to the extent that critical thinking skills are being promoted in Taiwan's secondary schools.

Background for the Study

Historically, the teaching of critical thinking can be derived from Dewey's philosophy of thinking developed during the early part of the ZOth century (Dewey, 1916,1933, 1938). However, it was not until the 1950's that educators began to teach critical thinking skill in the classroom as an integral component of the curriculum. According to Beyer (1985), one of the most detailed and earliest inventories of critical thinking skills was created by Dressel and Mayhew in 1954. Dressel and Mayhew developed a list of specific critical thinking skills, but failed to follow up their initial work through research and refinement. However, this early work did not go unnoticed. Watson and Glaser used the inventory developed by Dressely and Mayhew to design the popular Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal. This was a multiple-choice test evaluating high school or college student' skills of arguments, specifically inferences, recognizing assumptions, evaluation conclusions, and assessing the strength of reasons offered in support of aclaim.

The Definition of Critical Thinking

In developing a workable definition of critical thinking for this study, the researchers relied on Glaser's (1941) three components of critical thinking.. These three components have been the general constitution of critical thinking up to the present time. They are:" 1. an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experience, 2. knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and 3. some skills in applying those methods" (Glaser, 1941, p. 5-6). In addition, the present study recognizes Piaget's developmental theory, along with Bruner's ideas related to cognitive psychology. The definition, skill disposition, and the teaching of critical thinking were developed from these ideas.

Seven teacher behaviors and the classroom culture were deemed having influence on students' critical thinking. The seven behaviors are: teachers' inquiry; discussion, multi-communication, and encouraging students to ask questions; cooperative learning, teachers reaction; time of waiting for answers; seat arrangement and numbers of students; and teachers' instruction, as well as modeling. Coupled with the seven teacher behavior are the ideas of Taiwanese researchers regarding current schooling in Taiwan.

There were numerous definitions of critical thinking which were quite divergent and depended on individual understanding of research needs. Definitions of critical thinking varied in breadth or inclusiveness. Broadly defined, critical thinking could be equal to the cognitive processes and strategies involved in decision making, problem solving, or inquiry; whereas, a narrow definition was seen as an essential element of general cognitive processes, such as problem solving or decision making, but was not synonymous with them.