Dissin' democracy? African American adolescents' concepts of citizenship

Journal of Social Studies Research, Winter 2000 by Cooks, Jamal, Epstein, Terrie

ABSTRACT

Although social studies educators aim to empower young people to become active citizens of a democratic society, there has been very little research in recent years on young people's understanding of citizenship. In this study, we analyzed 14 inner city African American middle school students' concepts of citizenship. In addition to characterizing citizenship as adherence to the law and respect for others, the students defined it in terms of individual and community empowerment Like earlier studies, we found that the students exhibited high degrees of political cynicism and low levels of political participation. Nonetheless, most of the students believed that they could contribute positively to their communities, despite the persistence of racism in economic, political and legal realms. Given students' views, we conclude with suggestions for implementing social studies pedagogies which build upon the students' concepts of citizenship.

Introduction

According to the National Council for the Social Studies (1994), the purpose of social studies is to enable "young people to develop the ability to make informed and reasoned decisions for the public good as citizens of a culturally diverse, democratic society in an interdependent world." Although others (Engle & Ochoa, 1988; Stanley & Whitson, 1-992-)-have proposed more critical conceptions of social studies, most social studies educators agree that education for democratic citizenship includes more than the transmission of knowledge and skills related to the rights of citizens and rules of government It also encompasses the development of dispositions which propel young people to promote social justice in their own and other societies.

Between the 1960s and 1980s, researchers have conducted a number of studies on children's, adolescents' and adults' political socialization (attitudes towards citizenship, political participation, tolerance, etc.). In this study, we have contributed to this literature by examining one group of African American adolescents' ideas about citizenship. The adolescents' views not only reflected knowledge and beliefs about the civic nature of American society, duty also reflected the adolescents' sense of agency to transform themselves and their communities. Teachers and policy makers who are aware of young people's concepts of citizenship may be better equipped to enact pedagogies which empower youth to think critically about and change society.

Studies on Political Socialization Youth and Political Socialization

Over the past 30 years, researchers have conducted a number of studies to examine a range of issues related to young people's political socialization. In- addition- to investigating young people's knowledge of national, state and local politics, researchers have examined youth's attitudes towards political participation and equality and feelings of political efficacy, cynicism and tolerance.1 Although several studies have been conducted solely or primarily with European American youth (Easton & Dennis, 1965, Greenstein, 1965; Hess & Torney, 1967; Long and Long, 1980), others have described African American youth's political attitudes or compared African American and European American youths' political attitudes or compared African American and European American youths' knowledge and attitudes (Avery, 1988, 1992; Ehman, 1969; Langton & Jennings, 1968; Jennings & Niemi, 1981; Gallatin, 1985; Lawrence, 1970; Long, 1980; Lyons 1970).

In a 1968 nationwide study, Langton & Jennings found that African American high school seniors were more likely to define citizenship as loyalty to the nation than as active political participation. African American students who had completed one civics course were more likely than those with no courses to define citizenship as loyalty rather than participation. The authors explained this finding by noting that given racial barriers to political participation, African American youth might have thought they had a more realistic chance of fulfilling the role of the loyal citizen than the role of the citizen active in mainstream political organizations and institutions.

Ehman (1969) found that although African American secondary students felt less obligated to vote than European American students, African American students' obligation to vote increased as they completed civics courses in which teachers maintained "open classroom climates." Ehman defined climates as those in which teachers "...deal with political and social issues quite often, and maintain a neutral but objective position in a free discussion climate" (p. 573).

Studies on political efficacy (Ehman 1969; Langton & Jennings 1968; Lawrence, 1970; Lyons 1970) reported that African American youth at all income and grade levels had developed a lower sense of efficacy than European American youth. Ehman (1969) found that as African American secondary students completed civics courses with open classroom climates, their sense of efficacy decreased. Ehman explained this by suggesting that as African American youth "...perceive more `reality,' [they] feel less potent (as well as more cynical) as participants in the political system" (p. 577).