Estimation of pharmacy students' expected job satisfaction functions: Inter-gender differences

American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, Fall 1999 by Carvajal, Manuel J, Hardigan, Patrick

This paper seeks to formulate and estimate, using ordinary least squares, expected job satisfaction functions for male and female pharmacy students immediately prior to entering rotations or internship. Two issues are addressed: Whether or not expected job satisfaction functions can be estimated empirically and, if so, the extent to which inter-gender differences exist in the coefficients of the explanatory variables. The data consist of 60 men and 93 women enrolled at Nova Southeastern University. Expected level of job satisfaction from first job as pharmacist is measured along a one-to-ten scale, higher numbers indicating greater anticipated satisfaction. It is postulated to be a linear function of expected starting salary, grade average, age, preferred work setting, and ethnicity. For these variables least-squares estimates and their standard errors, levels of significance, and elasticities are developed separately for men and women, with statistically significant F ratios and relatively high R^sup 2^ values. The empirical evidence shows that expected job satisfaction functions and corresponding elasticities can be estimated successfully for male and female pharmacy students. The evidence also suggests that the rapidly changing gender composition in the pharmacy profession may have eliminated or altered inter-gender differences in outlooks and expectations prevalent until recently. While grades are a stronger determinant of job satisfaction for men than for women, age is a significant predictor for women but not for men. Surprisingly, women derive more expected satisfaction out of expected initial salary and out of potential retail-work setting than do men, which contradicts the traditional argument of greater male than female concern for income and business aspects of pharmacy.

INTRODUCTION

Nearly a quarter (23.8 percent) of full-time pharmacists in the United States change jobs within a three-year period, and more than a third (35.7 percent) change jobs within a five-year period(l). Rates in excess of frictional staff turnover1 can lead to substantial long-term institutional expenditures on identifying, hiring, and training replacements for employees who move onto other positions or firms. Thus, policies consistent with a rational and efficient allocation of resources should include elements which reduce turnover, especially factors wholly or partly under the control of employers. This is the realm of job satisfaction.

Pharmacists, as well as other professionals, change jobs for two kinds of reasons: (i) expulsion factors, brought about by discontentment with their work or employer; and/or (ii) attraction factors resulting from availability of a seemingly more favorable position or employer. Examples of the first kind are stressful work environments, burnout, and inflexible schedules, while better pay and benefits, autonomy, and advancement opportunities are examples of the second kind. In both instances job satisfaction is of the essence: Dissatisfaction with one's current position as an expelling force vs. the perception of better conditions elsewhere as a magnet force.

Workers experience job satisfaction or dissatisfaction when they achieve, or fail to achieve, whatever objectives they deem important in their work(2,3). Satisfaction/dissatisfaction determinants may be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic determinants pertain to the nature and activities of a position (i.e., intellectual stimulation, chance to help patients, and feeling of accomplishment), whereas extrinsic determinants focus on other people or external considerations such as job security and interaction with supervisors or coworkers(4-6).

Different people are likely to respond differently to a given set of stimuli offered by a position or job situation. Some may be primarily concerned with maximizing salary and benefits regardless of nature of activity or inconveniences posed by stress, rigid company policies, etc., while others may be willing to trade off financial rewards for more pleasant working conditions, greater flexibility, or more challenging responsibilities. If these and other preferences are systematically related to employees' or potential employees' demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, they would become manifest in the configuration of an empirical job satisfaction function in which attraction factors exhibit positive coefficients and expulsion factors exhibit negative coefficients.

Both the theoretical formulation and empirical measurement of a job satisfaction function may vary by group. If turnover and job satisfaction are related, as some of the literature points out(7- 10), a specific function may yield different estimates when it is applied to two or more groups. Such methodology is applicable when exploring inter-gender variations in turnover and opportunities in the labor market. For example, Schondelmeyer reports that, throughout the 1980s, relatively more female (66.9 percent) than male (48.8 percent) full-time pharmacists changed jobs at least once(1). The rapidly changing composition in the pharmacy profession make these variations especially important in the process of matching applicants' capabilities and expectations with the needs and constraints of available jobs(4,11,12).