An apparent late woodland boundary in Western Wisconsin

Boszhardt, Robert F

ABSTRACT

The Effigy Mound culture of southern Wisconsin has been examined for well over a century. Until recently, differential distributions of mound forms have been largely ignored. Investigations in the Driftless Area of western Wisconsin reveal a quantifiable distinction in selected effigy mound forms, with sharp spatial separation between the adjacent Bad Axe and Coon Creek drainages. This segregation is also reflected in projectile point styles, preferred lithic raw materials, and ceramics, suggesting a distinct boundary between Late Woodland groups of the southern (Eastman phase) and northern (provisional Lewis phase) portions of the Driftless Area. These data have implications for the emergence of nucleated Oneota groups at Red Wing and Apple River.

Introduction

During his career at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Jim Stoltman devoted much of his research energies toward the unglaciated Driftless Area of southwestern Wisconsin. Beginning in the late 1970s, he began to concentrate his efforts in the Prairie du Chien locality, at the confluence of the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers. Using diagnostic artifacts and radiocarbon dates from key stratified sites, including rockshelters, floodplain shell middens, and alluvial fans, he developed a chronological framework for Middle Archaic through Late Woodland cultures, presented in phase definitions for the Archaic (Stoltman 1997) and Woodland traditions (Stoltman 1979, 1986a, 1986b, 1990).

The Eastman phase represents the Late Woodland Effigy Mound culture in southwestern Wisconsin, and sites of this phase are common in the Prairie du Chien locality. It dates to ca. A.D. 750-1050 and is marked by effigy mounds, notched and unnotched arrow tips, and Madison ware ceramics (Stoltman 1990). This phase is also distinguished by intensive harvesting of Mississippi River mussels and the introduction of corn. Eastman phase sites are located on all landforms in the Prairie du Chien locality, representing the first culture to utilize the floodplain, terraces, and uplands since the Archaic.

In contrast, the archaeological record indicates only minor occupation of the Prairie du Chien locality by late prehistoric Oneota people, and it appears that the mouth of the Wisconsin River was largely abandoned for several centuries before French exploration in the mid-1600s. Nonetheless, Stoltman ventured into the never-ending debate on the emergence of the Oneota culture. Specifically, he stirred discussion at the 1983 Red Wing Oneota conference and again in a regional synthesis of Upper Mississippi River culture history (1983) by categorically rejecting all Oneota dates that pre-dated Cahokia's Stirling phase (cal A.D. 1150-1250). Based on this interpretation, Stoltman argued that Oneota developed from and replaced its Late Woodland Effigy Mound predecessor.

Stoltman directed several dissertations and master's theses on Driftless Area research. In the late 1970s, Constance Arzigian, Jeffery Behm, Robert Boszhardt, and James Theler worked under Stoltman at Prairie du Chien. Having obtained a small Survey and Planning grant from the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, the group adopted a formal name (Wisconsin Archaeology Program, Driftless Area Project, or "WAPDAP"). Three WAPDAPers have continued research in the portion of the Driftless Area north of the Prairie du Chien locality through the University of Wisconsin-La Crosse and the Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center. As a matter of practicality, all Archaic and Woodland finds in the northern Driftless Area have been compared to the standard phase sequence established by Stoltman at Prairie du Chien.

One of the first realizations working near La Crosse was that there are no shell middens in the adjacent Mississippi River floodplain. Indeed, there are relatively few prehistoric sites known in the Mississippi River floodplain above the mouth of the Bad Axe River in Navigation Pool 9. This fact led to the recognition that the character of the Mississippi Valley is quite different between La Crosse and Prairie du Chien (Boszhardt 1986). This difference is reflected in the width of the trench, which is up to 15 km at La Crosse where the trench walls are composed of relatively soft sandstone. In contrast, the trench is only 3-5 km wide at Prairie du Chien because the walls there are formed of more resistant dolomite. The constricted valley at Prairie du Chien results in an overall swifter river and an ideal habitat for massive mussel beds. Hence, floodplain surveys between the Bad Axe River and Prairie du Chien have identified over 50 shell middens, whereas none are recorded above the Bad Axe all the way to St. Paul (Boszhardt 1982, 1988, 1989, 1996a; Dobbs and Mooers 1991; Mooers 1994; Overstreet 1983, 1984; Pleger 1996, 1997; Pleger et al. 2000; Wahls 1989). In addition, the wider nature of the valley near La Crosse is reflected in expansive Pleistocene outwash terraces, while these sand and gravel landforms occupy far less area near Prairie du Chien.

Effigy Mounds

Further research above Prairie du Chien has revealed other distinctions, most specifically pertaining to the Effigy Mound culture. Late Woodland effigy mounds have been recognized as a discrete southern Wisconsin manifestation since Lapham's (1855) classic Antiquities of Wisconsin. In the mid-twentieth century, Chandler Rowe extended the range of the Effigy Mound culture northward along the Mississippi River to encompass the Diamond Bluff terrace (Figure 1). Diamond Bluff/"Mero" is home to an extensive Silvernale phase (A.D. 1025/11001200) Oneota occupation and hundreds of conical mounds, along with three effigy mounds (Gibbon and Dobbs 1991; Rodell 1991). Mound 26, a long-tailed "panther," was excavated by the Wisconsin Archeological Survey in 1948 and was found to contain two small shell-tempered pots, at least one of which was attributed by Maxwell and others to the Emergent Oneota Silvernale phase (Rodell 1997:108-113). While long-tailed "panther," "lizard," or "turtle" mounds are common in glaciated eastern Wisconsin, where Salkin (1987) has affiliated them with the Horicon phase, these forms are extremely rare in the southwestern portion of the state. The enigmatic panther at Diamond Bluff has always been intriguing in terms of understanding the end of Effigy Mound and the beginning of the Oneota culture.

Along the Mississippi River, the number of effigy mounds decreases dramatically from Prairie du Chien to La Crosse (Figure 2). A tabulation of recorded animal-shaped effigy mounds (excluding small conicals, linears, and compound mounds) per county along the river finds high densities in Crawford (which encompasses Prairie du Chien) and Vernon counties and a sharp decrease in La Crosse County. Trempealeau County, just north of La Crosse, contains a slight concentration of effigy mounds, but counties further upriver contain few recorded effigy mounds.

Examination of individual tributary valleys reveals that the decrease in effigy mound frequency between Prairie du Chien and La Crosse occurs in dramatic fashion between the adjacent Bad Axe and Coon Creek drainages. The Bad Axe Valley is the northernmost drainage on the Wisconsin side of the Mississippi River in the constricted portion of the trench. Coon Valley, on the other hand, is the southernmost drainage joining the wider segment of the Upper Mississippi valley. The Bad Axe and Coon Creek valleys are otherwise nearly identical in size and environmental resources. However, the Bad Axe Valley (BAV) contained at least 69 animal-shaped effigy mounds at 21 individual sites, while Coon Valley (CV) has only three possible effigies reported from two groups. Furthermore, the effigy mounds in the Bad Axe Valley occur from its mouth to deep interior locations and were constructed on terraces, steep slopes, and upland ridge tops. The possible effigies along Coon Creek occur only at its mouth, in actuality, within the Mississippi trench.

Many of the effigies reported in the Upper Mississippi Valley are based on 1880s surveys by Theodore Lewis. Lewis mapped over 13,000 earthworks as part of the Northwestern Archaeological Survey, focusing on animal-shaped mounds (Keyes 1928). He visited many mounds on the basis of tips provided by local informants. So concentrated were the effigies in and around the Bad Axe Valley that Lewis wrote in April 1884 that the area "is lousy with them, and I saw them all the way from Victory [a river town one mile below the mouth of the Bad Axe Valley] over to the bluffs." The dearth of effigies in Coon Valley is implied by the fact that Lewis apparently never even ventured into it and is verified by the fact that none were located during a 1980s systematic survey (Sasso 1989).

This pattern continues in the next drainage north, the much larger La Crosse River valley. The near absence of effigies near La Crosse is borne out by Increase Lapham's (1852) account of a mound survey that traversed the entire La Crosse River valley, in which he wrote: "The imitative [effigy] mounds, so far as I could learn have not been formed in the valley or vicinity of La Crosse." In fact, there were two effigy mounds at La Crosse, and these were mapped by Lewis in the 1880s. Both were located near the mouth of the La Crosse River, within the Mississippi Valley. One of the La Crosse effigies was either a "turtle" or bird, the other a long-tailed "panther."

Effigy Mound Classification

In order to quantify the apparent effigy mound segregation between the areas north and south of the Bad Axe Valley, we developed a simplified classification of effigy mound forms (Figure 3), avoiding such names as bear, panther, turtle, wolf. Instead, we separated birds from quadrupeds. Birds were subdivided into those with a single tail and those with a split tail. Quadrupeds were differentiated into those having a long tail, a short tail, and no tail. The "long tail" category was defined on the basis of whether the tail was as long as or longer than the length of the body and head combined. Initially, the three quadruped groups were further subdivided into groups based on whether they were constructed in plan view (four legs) or profile (two legs). Because the distribution of short- and no-tailed mounds was nearly identical, these were combined for this article. As no distinct patterning was revealed in the distribution of plan/profile subcategories, these are not detailed in this article. The study also did not consider the linear, compound, or small conical mounds often attributed to the Effigy Mound culture.

Animal-shaped effigy mounds within river counties from the Illinois state line to the St. Croix River were included, with quantities tabulated from Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin state site records (Table 1). Data were derived from copies of Lewis's original notes and those of Ellison Orr (n.d.) for northeastern Iowa. In addition, data from Mallam's (1976) Effigy Mound study were considered. Sites containing each of the mound forms were then plotted on an ArcView (ESRI) hydrological base map. The maps depict the presence of mound form categories and not densities. Each mound category was designated by a symbol, and one symbol for each category was placed at the location of the site. Thus, sites having single or multiple split-tailed birds are depicted with one symbol representing that category.

An Effigy Mound Boundary

Figures 4 and 5 depict the distribution of mound categories by site. These reveal a clear pattern of differential distribution of long-tailed mounds, which, with one exception, are restricted to the area north of the Bad Axe River. The cluster of long-tailed mounds at Trempealeau is represented by several sites that contain multiple examples of this category, such as 47Tr2 (Figure 6). As noted earlier, individual long-tailed mounds were also recorded at La Crosse and Diamond Bluff. Long-tailed mounds extend eastward to Juneau County on the Wisconsin River and were very common throughout glaciated eastern Wisconsin (Lapham 1855). The lone example of a long-tailed mound in the southern portion of the Driftless Area is located near the mouth of the Grant River, in the vicinity of the Late Woodland/Mississippian Fred Edwards site (Finney 1993; Finney and Stoltman 1991).

While short/no-tailed mounds also occur north of the Bad Axe River, they are much more common to the south, including the lower portion of the Kickapoo Valley and eastward along the lower Wisconsin River to Muscoda. Single-tailed birds occur throughout the entire region, but the rare split-tailed birds are nearly confined to the area below the Bad Axe Valley and east to Muscoda.

This distribution suggests a social boundary between effigy mound groups north and south of the Bad Axe Valley. This interpretation is solidified by corresponding Late Woodland ceramic types and projectile points in these two subregions. The diagnostic pottery of the Effigy Mound Eastman phase is Madison ware, best represented by Madison Cord and Fabric Impressed vessels (Stoltman 1990). Madison ware pottery has been reported throughout the Driftless Area, at sites north and south of the Bad Axe Valley. However, the Late Woodland type Angelo Punctated occurs only north of the Bad Axe Valley (Figure 7), with the possible exception of an incised-over-cord-marked rim reported from Fred Edwards (Finney and Stoltman 1991:243). Angelo Punctured is distinguished by bands of carefully applied parallel incisions and associated small punctations that are usually triangular or "wedge-shaped." The type is not well dated, but a pseudo-collared or braced-rim vessel from the Overhead site at La Crosse is clearly Late Woodland in form (Boszhardt 1997). A feature at the Ridder site at Trempealeau that contained a Late Woodland pot with wedge-shaped punctations but no incisions was radiocarbon-dated to A.D. 860-72 (BGS- 1875) or cal A.D. 980 (Boszhardt 1996b). The closest comparative ceramic ware appears to be Great Oasis pottery, which occurs in central and northwestern Iowa, southwestern Minnesota, and sporadically in eastern Minnesota. The Great Oasis complex is dated to ca. A.D. 900-1100 (uncalibrated) (Anfinson 1979; Tiffany 1981).

Analysis of Late Woodland projectile points also suggests a division at the Bad Axe Valley (Figure 8; Table 2). Late Woodland points in the Upper Mississippi Valley generally fall into two forms of triangular arrow tips: unnotched (Madison) and notched (Cahokia or Grant). Madison points were also manufactured by the subsequent Oneota culture, although an analysis of length/width ratios and the presence and absence of serrations indicates that Late Woodland and Oneota triangular points from western Wisconsin can be distinguished in many cases (Ching 1993). For example, Oneota points at La Crosse are not serrated, whereas a substantial number of Late Woodland Madison points from Prairie du Chien and central Wisconsin are serrated. Side-notched Cahokia and Grant points are considered horizon markers for the period A.D. 1000-1200 (Finney 1993:169).

Projectile points from the Bad Axe Valley were documented from the Loren Cade collection and UW-La Crosse test excavations at Tollackson and Cade Farms under the direction of James Theler. Projectile points from the Coon Creek drainage were obtained from Robert Sasso's (1989) survey, the private collection of Ryan Letterly, and test excavations at the Skumsrud site by the Mississippi Valley Archaeology Center.

The set of 29 points from the Bad Axe Valley includes 13 Madison points and 16 side-notched (primarily Grant) points. Seven of the Madison points are made of chert, while six are made of orthoquartzite, a material that outcrops north of the La Crosse River (Boszhardt 1998). In contrast, all of the side-notched points are manufactured of chert. All but two of 38 arrow tips from Coon Valley are Madison triangular. The two side-notched examples were recovered from sites near the mouth of Coon Creek, in the Mississippi Valley trench. Of the 36 Madison points from Coon Valley, 16 are manufactured of orthoquartzite (Table 2).

This analysis indicates a difference in Late Woodland projectile points between these two valleys (Figure 9). Side-notched Cahokia or Grant points are always made of chert and account for approximately 55 percent of the Late Woodland points in the Bad Axe Valley. In contrast, these points are virtually absent from Coon Valley. The same phenomenon occurs in the adjacent north/southoriented Kickapoo Valley, with chert side-notched points found in the lower portion of the drainage where effigy mounds occur; with the exception of the Lawrence Rockshelter, no such points have been found in the extensively studied middle section of the valley, which has no effigy mounds (Holtz and Boszhardt 1999).

Late Woodland Madison points also occur in the La Crosse River valley. In the Bad Axe and Coon Creek drainages, approximately 45 percent of the Madison points are manufactured from orthoquartzite, and many are serrated. In the middle and upper reaches of the La Crosse River valley, well away from major Oneota settlements at La Crosse itself, the frequency of orthoquartzite Madison points increases dramatically. For example, Hurley's (1974) excavations at the Silver Creek I site, near the headwaters of the La Crosse River, recovered 11 Madison points, all of which are made of orthoquartzite. Silver Creek is also the location where Angelo Punctated was first recognized. Other collections from the middle and upper reaches of the La Crosse River valley contain a small percentage of chert Madison points, and side-notched Cahokia points are extremely rare.

While the increase in orthoquartzite north of the Bad Axe Valley is almost certainly influenced by increased proximity to orthoquartzite sources, the dichotomy in the distribution of side-notched points is clearly cultural. Furthermore, Barrett's (1933) description of the arrow tips from Aztalan is enlightening. He reported 359 small projectile points, of which 54 were side notched and 305 were unnotched. All of the side-notched points were made of chert, as they are in the Bad Axe Valley, the Prairie du Chien locality, and the Late Woodland/Mississippian Fred Edwards site in Grant County (Table 2). Of the 305 unnotched Madison points at Aztalan, Barrett reported that 117 were made of chert, 18 were made of quartz, and 170 were made of quartzite. Thus, while 55 percent of the Madison points at Aztalan were made of west-central Wisconsin orthoquartzite, none of the side-notched ones were.

Conclusions: Segregating the Eastman and Provisional Lewis Phases

In sum, recent research in the northern portion of the Driftless Area has revealed a series of significant distinctions in Late Woodland markers between the areas north and south of the Bad Axe River. To the south are effigy mounds dominated by birds, some of which have split tails, and quadrupeds with either short tails of no tails. Associated ceramics are exclusively Madison ware. Approximately 60 percent of the projectile points are Madison triangular, with the other 40 percent being side-notched forms, all of which are made of chert. In the Prairie du Chien locality, orthoquartzite arrow tips are rare unnotched Madison points and tend to be restricted to the main trench of the Mississippi River. These characteristics correspond to Stoltman's Eastman phase. Associated sites include the dense cluster of prehistoric shell middens in the constricted Mississippi River floodplain.

To the north of the Bad Axe Valley, where the Mississippi trench is much wider and shell middens are non-existent, effigy mound quadrupeds are dominated by long-tailed forms and single-tailed birds. Ceramics include both Madison ware and Angelo Punctated, and projectile points are nearly exclusively unnotched Madison triangulars, many of which are serrated and made from orthoquartzite. This Late Woodland phenomenon of the northern Driftless Area does not conform to the Eastman phase, and it is proposed that it be considered the Lewis phase in honor of nineteenth-century mound surveyor Theodore Lewis. The Lewis phase is not firmly dated, so it currently has a provisional status (Figure 10).

Because the provisional Lewis phase appears to have Great Oasis influence and encompasses the unique Diamond Bluff "panther" mound with its inclusive emergent Oneota vessels, this phase reflects the terminal Woodland occupation of the northern portion of the Driftless Area and initial transition into the Silvernale Oneota complex at Red Wing. For example, Angelo Punctated pottery was found at Diamond Bluff (Hall 1962) and at Wakanda Park Mound 10 in Dunn County. Wittry's (1959) excavation of Mound 10 at Wakanda Park also produced a grittempered, angular-shouldered Mississippian vessel, similar to a small, grit-tempered, Ramey-like pot found at the Midway site (Boszhardt 1997). Likewise, Midway also produced a shell-tempered variant of a Great Oasis or Mill Creek rim. It is intriguing that Oneota first manifests itself in the Upper Mississippi River at Apple River and Red Wing, then La Crosse, on either side of the Eastman phase. In contrast, the Prairie du Chien locality never supported a major Oneota occupation but, like all of the southern portion of the Driftless Area, became virtually abandoned by ca. A.D. 1200. An explanatory model of how and why Driftless Area Late Woodland groups transformed into emergent Oneota along the Upper Mississippi River is presented in the accompanying article by Theler and Boszhardt.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are owed Jean Dowiasch for major assistance with the figures and to two anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments. Editorial comments from William Green helped clarified the content. A portion of this effort was supported through the Regional Archaeology Program funded by the Historic Preservation Division of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

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