Group development: A review of the literature and a commentary on future research directions

Group Facilitation, Spring 2001 by Smith, George

The Development of Linear-Progressive Models.

The linear-progressive models operate under the assumption that group development is based on the completion of a definite and ordered set of stages, phases or periods. As previously noted, the models that are included in this specific category are some of the best known and tested of the group development models. These models also tend to be the models that are typically used in teaching group development and can be found in written materials ranging from academic textbooks to organizational handbooks to articles appearing in the popular press.

Linear progressive models have been developed from a number of varied approaches to studying groups and their development. The predominant technique used appears to have been observation (e.g., Bennis and Shepard, 1956; Mills, 1964; Braaten, 1974/75; Lacoursiere, 1980; and Maples, 1988). The activities and settings in which groups were observed have been diverse. For example, one of the more prevalent types of groups used in these studies during the 1960s were undergraduate and graduate students (e.g., Bennis and Shepard, 1956; Mills, 1964; Maples, 1988).

Another frequently used group was groups composed of various types of medical and psychiatric patients and individuals receiving counseling and/or training to deal with different addictions or special needs (e.g., Sarri & Galinsky, 1974; Lacoursiere, 1980). Many of these researchers coupled their observational techniques with their own personal experiences and insights from working with groups as either facilitators, participants or instructors (e.g., Braaten, 1974/75; Caple, 1978; Lacoursiere, 1980).

Perhaps the next most common method of model development has been development from reviews of the existing body of group development literature. The best known example of this type of model development would be Tuckman's (1965, Tuckman and Jensen, 1977) stages of small group development. Other examples of these types of models would include: Braaten (1974/75), Heinen and Jacobson (1976) and Kormanski and Mozenter (1987). Table 4 notes the basis of model development for each of the models included in this section.

The developmental processes in the various linear progressive and life-cycle models exhibit many similarities in their depiction of group development. These similarities and some of the subtle differences will be discussed in the remainder of this section.

Stage or Period of "Forming".

In virtually all of the linear progressive models, the first developmental stage or period of development is an unspecified length of time in which group members meet together in a physical space, become acquainted or familiar with each other and orient themselves to the task or work to be performed. Several different events and processes mark this stage. One specific and important ongoing process is a period of "boundary testing" (e.g., Tuckman, 1965; Tuckman and Jensen, 1977; Heinen and Jacobson, 1976; Caple, 1978). During "boundary testing," individuals actively attempt to define the task, while at the same time work to establish an identity within the group (e.g., Bennis and Shepard, 1956; Tuckman, 1965; Braaten, 1974/75; Tuckman and Jensen, 1977; Kormanski & Mozenter, 1987). Often, each individual's identity is established upon the knowledge and skills (or lack of these qualities) that the individual brings to the group.