Motivational strategies in the elementary school setting

Kappa Delta Pi Record, Spring 2003 by Fisher, Heather L

In classrooms where teachers demonstrate positive attitudes and expectations, studentcentered motivation strategies can lead to greater academic achievement.

How to capture and maintain the attention of students is often on the minds of teachers. Motivation, or lack of it, is an ongoing concern for educators seeking the reasons or goals that underlie student involvement or noninvolvement in academic activities.

In the classroom, the "motivation to learn" (Marshall 1987) is evident in learners who find meaning, value, and reward in academic tasks, whether or not those tasks are intrinsically interesting. Motivation to learn is characterized by long-term, quality involvement in learning and commitment to the learning process (Ames 1990).

Educators must understand the important role they play in influencing students' motivation to learn. The personal beliefs teachers have about teaching and learning, as well as the nature of expectations they hold for students, exert a powerful influence (Raffini 1993). To a large degree, teacher expectation determines a student's motivation to learn (Stipek 1994).

Motivational Theories

Underlying specific strategies for developing motivation in students are several theories.

Attribution theory is defined as a student's perception of his or her educational experiences, which generally influences his or her motivation more than the actual, objective reality of those experiences.

Goal theory focuses on the reasons students achieve. The adoption of task goals is associated with more adaptive patterns of learning than is the adoption of ability goals. A task goal represents the belief that the purpose of achieving is personal improvement and understanding. Students with a task-goal orientation focus on their own progress in mastering skills and knowledge. People are normally motivated to engage in behaviors that they believe will contribute to goal achievement. The strength of one's motivation to act depends on the importance attached to the goal in question and how successful a particular behavior will be in moving toward goal achievement.

Self-determination theory describes students' three categories of needs: a sense of competence, a sense of relatedness to others, and a sense of autonomy (Deci and Ryan 1985). Motivation increases when students are asked to assume greater autonomy and control over their lives and learning. Autonomy can be incorporated in the classroom, for example, through teaching decision-making skills.

Effective Techniques

Renchler (1992) identified a number of concise, practical strategies for motivation:

* emphasizing goal setting and self-regulation;

* offering choices in instructional settings;

* rewarding students for attaining personal-best goals;

* fostering teamwork through group-learning and problemsolving experiences;

* replacing social comparisons or achievement with evaluation and self-assessment techniques;

* teaching time-management skills; and

* offering self-paced instruction when possible.

A process called attribution retraining-which involves modeling, socialization, and practice exercises-is sometimes used to motivate discouraged students. The goals of attribution retraining focus on helping students concentrate on the tasks at hand, rather than allowing students to become distracted by what they consider to be their failures. Using this process, students respond to frustration by retracing their steps to find mistakes or by figuring out alternative ways of approaching a problem instead of giving up (Brophy 1996).

Teachers as Motivators

Brophy (1996) argued that it is essential for teachers to view themselves as active socialization agents. By developing their role as facilitators of student socialization in the learning environment, teachers can create the potential for having a significant impact on students' lives. Absent this purposeful approach, teachers can unknowingly communicate a range of attitudes about whether ability is fixed or modifiable and also communicate their expectations for individual strengths through individual practices (Graham 1990). When students are convinced that their performance is caused by factors beyond their control, they are unlikely to visualize reasons to hope for improvement.

Good and Brophy (1995) advocated that modeling; teaching of pro-social behavior; communicating positive expectations, attributes, social labels; and reinforcing desired behavior aid in student motivation. Students consistently treated as well-intentioned individuals, respectful of themselves and others, and desiring to act morally, are more likely to develop prosocial qualities. Positive qualities and behaviors are reinforced through expressions of appreciation. Students who are treated as if they have the opposite inclinations will probably not develop pro-social qualities of behavior (Brophy 1996).

Instructional Application

Certain attributes of teachers, according to Good and Brophy (1995), contribute to successful socialization of students. Among these are social attractiveness, ego strength, realistic perceptions of self and students, enjoyment of students, clarity about teacher roles, patience and determination, acceptance of the individual, and firm but flexible limits.