Friends and Interests: China's Distinctive Links with Africa

9. See Reuters (2005); Pan (2006); Konopo (2005); Shichor (2005); Daily Trust (2006a); Thiong'o (2006); IRIN (2006a); Klare (2006).

10. See APA (2006a) (PRC builders used 90% Angolan labor); APA (2006b) (PRC firm uses 80% Angolans to build 5,000 apartments); CCS (2006:64) (PRC firms use mainly African labor in construction); Sunday Telegraph (2006a) (PRC firms use only local labor in South Africa construction).

11. See Shinn (2005); Daily Trust (2005); Daily Champion (2006); interviews with scholars and officials in South Africa and Ethiopia, 2004; Ghana, 2005; Tanzania, 2006.

12. Studies of unequal and disparate exchange deem the concept empirically robust (Custers 2002).

13. In a half-dozen major African states, all or almost all U.S. investment is in oil, yet the U.S. officially criticizes China for focusing too much investment in Africa on raw materials (see Knight 2002; AFP 2006b).

14. Meles Zenawi, the Ethiopian president and U.S. ally, has criticized neoliberal market reforms and praised East Asia's "strong developmental states (Financial Times 2007).

15. Ni (2006) (Chinese-owned conglomerate employs 20,000 Nigerians); This Day 2006a (PRC factories in Nigeria make 90% of country's motorcycles, as well as air-conditioners, machines, consumer electronics, telecommunications equipment); Timberg (2006) (2,000-worker Chinese-owned shoe factory in Kano, Nigeria); AFX News, Jan. 21, 2007 (1,100 to be employed in Chinese-owned Nigerian appliance factory); Xinhua (2006b) (Chinese firms employ more than 10,000 Zambians, some as managers).

16. On neoliberalism in Africa, see Harrison (2005; 2006); Ayers (2006).

17. China has military missions in, or sells major weapons to, seven African states (Pan 2006). PRC small arms are sold in many other African states (Curtis 8c Hickson 2006). Overall, "China's involvement in military affairs on the continent has made little headway" and "China's security and strategic role in Africa... pales in comparison to that of the United States" (DeLisle 2007). U.S. military aid and major arms go to forty-seven African states (Hartung 8c Berrigan2005).

18. Mittelman (2006) has questioned whether there is a Chinese consensus on development. For a leading PRC scholar's critique of the prevailing model, see Wang (2003).

19. France has held quadrennial summits with African leaders for five decades. See The East African (2007). Japan pioneered the Tokyo International Conference on African Development in the 1990s; see Japan Journal (2005). In 2006, an India Africa Partnership Conference was held in New Delhi, while the presidents of Brazil, four other South American countries, and twenty African states summited in Nigeria; see Nation (2007a, 2007b).

20. On hierarchy in the IFI's and WTO, see Woods (2003:92-114) and Milanovic (2005:150-51)

21. See also the Wangfang Shuju database, http://scholar.ilib.cn/abstract.

22. By 2005, China had canceled debt totaling $1.3b from thirty-one African countries. In 2007, it canceled $1.4b more African debt (This Day 2007). Africa's total indebtedness to China is unclear, but as of late 2004 all developing countries together owed China $5b (World Bank and IMF 2006:8).